FreeBSD 使用手册

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FreeBSD中文化项目

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欢迎使用FreeBSD! 本手册适用于安装 FreeBSD 4.9-RELEASE 和 FreeBSD 5.2.1-RELEASE 以及它们的日常使用。 这个手册目前由很多人持续地维护。其中的内容需要不断的添加和更新。 如果你有兴趣参加这个项目，请发邮件到FreeBSD documentation project 邮件列表。此文档最新的版本可以从 FreeBSD Web站点 上获得。 其他的各种格式和压缩的文档可以从FreeBSD 的 FTP 服务器 或下列其中的一个镜像站点下载获得. 如果你更喜欢获得一份手册的硬介质，你可以在 FreeBSD Mall购买. 你还可以使用搜索手册.

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[ 章节模式 / 完整文件 ]
Table of Contents
前言
I. 起步
1. 介绍
1.1. 概要
1.2. 欢迎来到FreeBSD的世界
1.3. 关于FreeBSD计划
2. 安装 FreeBSD
2.1. 概述
2.2. 安装前的准备工作
2.3. 开始安装
2.4. 介绍 Sysinstall
2.5. 分配磁盘空间
2.6. 选择要安装的软件包
2.7. 选择您要使用的安装介质
2.8. 安装确认
2.9. 安装后的配置
2.10. 支持的硬件
2.11. 常见问题
2.12. 高级安装指南
2.13. 准备你自己的安装介质
3. UNIX Basics
3.1. Synopsis
3.2. Virtual Consoles and Terminals
3.3. Permissions
3.4. Directory Structure
3.5. Disk Organization
3.6. Mounting and Unmounting File Systems
3.7. Processes
3.8. Daemons, Signals, and Killing Processes
3.9. Shells
3.10. Text Editors
3.11. Devices and Device Nodes
3.12. Binary Formats
3.13. For More Information
4. 安装应用程序: Packages 和 Ports
4.1. 概要
4.2. 软件安装预览
4.3. 寻找你要的应用程序
4.4. 使用package系统
4.5. 使用Ports Collection
4.6. Post-installation Activities
4.7. Dealing with Broken Ports
5. X Window 系统
5.1. 概述
5.2. 理解 X
5.3. 安装 XFree86™
5.4. XFree86 的配置
5.5. 在 XFree86 中使用字体
5.6. X 显示管理器
5.7. 桌面环境
II. 系统管理
6. 设置和调整
6.1. 大纲
6.2. 初步配置
6.3. 核心配置
6.4. 应用程序配置
6.5. 启动服务
6.6. 配置 cron
6.7. 在 FreeBSD 5.X 下使用 rc
6.8. 设置网卡
6.9. 虚拟主机
6.10. 配置文件
6.11. 用 sysctl 进行调整
6.12. 调整磁盘
6.13. 调整内核限制
6.14. 添加交换空间
6.15. 电源和资源管理
7. FreeBSD引导过程
7.1. 概述
7.2. 引导问题
7.3. MBR, 和引导阶段一，二，三
7.4. 内核在引导时的交互
7.5. Device Hints
7.6. Init:进程控制及初始化
7.7. shutdown 队列
8. 用户和基本的帐户管理
8.1. 概要
8.2. 介绍
8.3. 超级用户帐户
8.4. 系统帐户
8.5. 用户帐户
8.6. 修改帐户
8.7. 限制用户使用系统资源
8.8. 个性化用户设置
8.9. 组
9. 配置FreeBSD的内核
9.1. 摘要
9.2. 为什么需要建立一个定制的内核?
9.3. 建立并安装一个定制的内核
9.4. 配置文件
9.5. 创建设备节点
9.6. 如果出现问题怎么办
10. 安全
10.1. 概述
10.2. 介绍
10.3. 确保FreeBSD的安全
10.4. DES, MD5, and Crypt
10.5. One-time Passwords
10.6. KerberosIV
10.7. Kerberos5
10.8. Firewalls
10.9. OpenSSL
10.10. VPN over IPsec
10.11. OpenSSH
10.12. Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
10.13. File System Access Control Lists
10.14. FreeBSD Security Advisories
11. Printing
11.1. Synopsis
11.2. Introduction
11.3. Basic Setup
11.4. Advanced Printer Setup
11.5. Using Printers
11.6. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler
11.7. Troubleshooting
12. Storage
12.1. Synopsis
12.2. Device Names
12.3. Adding Disks
12.4. RAID
12.5. Creating and Using Optical Media (CDs & DVDs)
12.6. Creating and Using Floppy Disks
12.7. Creating and Using Data Tapes
12.8. Backups to Floppies
12.9. Backup Basics
12.10. Network, Memory, and File-Backed File Systems
12.11. File System Snapshots
12.12. File System Quotas
12.13. Encrypting Disk Partitions
13. The Vinum Volume Manager
13.1. Synopsis
13.2. Disks Are Too Small
13.3. Access Bottlenecks
13.4. Data Integrity
13.5. Vinum Objects
13.6. Some Examples
13.7. Object Naming
13.8. Configuring Vinum
13.9. Using Vinum for the Root Filesystem
14. 本地化－I18N/L10N使用和设置
14.1. 摘要
14.2. 基础知识
14.3. 使用本地化语言
14.4. 编译I18N程序
14.5. 本地化FreeBSD
15. 桌面应用
15.1. 概要
15.2. 浏览器
15.3. 办公,图象处理
15.4. 文档查看器
15.5. 财务
15.6. 总结
16. 多媒体
16.1. 概要
16.2. 安装声卡
16.3. MP3音频
16.4. 视频回放
16.5. 安装电视卡
17. Serial Communications
17.1. Synopsis
17.2. Introduction
17.3. Terminals
17.4. Dial-in Service
17.5. Dial-out Service
17.6. Setting Up the Serial Console
18. PPP 和 SLIP
18.1. 概述
18.2. 使用用户级PPP
18.3. 使用内核级PPP
18.4. Troubleshooting PPP Connections
18.5. 使用基于以太网的PPP(PPPoE)
18.6. Using PPP over ATM (PPPoA)
18.7. 使用SLIP
19. Advanced Networking
19.1. Synopsis
19.2. Gateways and Routes
19.3. Wireless Networking
19.4. Bluetooth
19.5. Bridging
19.6. NFS
19.7. Diskless Operation
19.8. ISDN
19.9. NIS/YP
19.10. DHCP
19.11. DNS
19.12. NTP
19.13. Network Address Translation
19.14. The inetd ``Super-Server''
19.15. Parallel Line IP (PLIP)
19.16. IPv6
20. 电子邮件
20.1. 概要
20.2. 使用电子邮件
20.3. sendmail 配置
20.4. 改变你的邮件传输代理程序
20.5. 疑难解答
20.6. 高级主题
20.7. SMTP 与 UUCP
20.8. 拨号连接时使用邮件传送
20.9. SMTP 验证
21. 最前沿
21.1. 概述
21.2. FreeBSD-CURRENT 对 FreeBSD-STABLE
21.3. 同步你的源码
21.4. 使用make world
21.5. 跟踪多台机器
22. Linux二进制兼容模式
22.1. 概要
22.2. 安装
22.3. 安装Mathematica®
22.4. 安装Maple™
22.5. 安装MATLAB®
22.6. 安装Oracle®
22.7. 安装SAP® R/3®
22.8. 高级主题
III. 附录
A. Obtaining FreeBSD
A.1. CDROM and DVD Publishers
A.2. FTP Sites
A.3. Anonymous CVS
A.4. Using CTM
A.5. Using CVSup
A.6. CVS Tags
A.7. AFS Sites
A.8. rsync Sites
B. 参考文献
B.1. 关于 FreeBSD 的专业书籍与杂志
B.2. 用户指南
B.3. 管理员指南
B.4. 开发指南
B.5. 操作系统原理
B.6. 信息安全方面的参考文献
B.7. 硬件参考
B.8. UNIX 历史
B.9. 各种期刊
C. Resources on the Internet
C.1. Mailing Lists
C.2. Usenet Newsgroups
C.3. World Wide Web Servers
C.4. Email Addresses
C.5. Shell Accounts
D. PGP Keys
D.1. 官员
D.2. 核心团队成员
D.3. 开发者
Colophon
List of Tables
2-1. 硬件设备清单
2-2. 第一个硬盘的分区表
2-3. Partition Layout for Subsequent Disks
2-4. 可能的安全等级
2-5. FreeBSD ISO映像文件名和含意
3-1. Disk Device Codes
12-1. Physical Disk Naming Conventions
13-1. Vinum Plex Organizations
19-1. Wiring a Parallel Cable for Networking
List of Figures
2-1. 内核配置菜单
2-2. 配置内核可视化视觉接口
2-3. 展开驱动程序清单
2-4. 没有冲突的设备驱动程序状态画面
2-5. Sysinstall 主界面
2-6. 典型的设备探测结果
2-7. 选择离开Sysinstall
2-8. 选取Sysinstall主菜单的Usage项目
2-9. 选择说明文件菜单
2-10. Sysinstall说明文件菜单
2-11. Sysinstall 主菜单
2-12. Sysinstall 键盘对应菜单
2-13. Sysinstall 主菜单
2-14. Sysinstall 选项设置
2-15. 开始进行标准安装
2-16. 选择要分区的硬盘
2-17. 典型的尚未编辑前的Fdisk分区表
2-18. Fdisk 分区使用整个硬盘
2-19. Sysinstall 多重引导管理程序
2-20. 离开选择硬盘画面
2-21. Sysinstall Disklabel 编辑器
2-22. Sysinstall Disklabel 编辑器-使用自动配置
2-23. 根目录使用空间
2-24. 编辑要分区大小
2-25. 选择根分区类型
2-26. 选择根挂接点
2-27. Sysinstall Disklabel 编辑器
2-28. 选择软件包
2-29. 确认您要安装的软件包
2-30. 选择安装介质
2-31. 选择网卡设备
2-32. 配置 ed0接口
2-33. 编辑 inetd.conf配置文件
2-34. 默认的匿名FTP配置
2-35. 编辑FTP欢迎信息
2-36. 编辑 exports文件
2-37. 选择安全等级
2-38. 系统终端配置选项
2-39. 屏幕保护程序选项
2-40. 屏幕保护时间设置
2-41. 退出系统终端配置
2-42. 选择您所处的地理区域
2-43. 选择您所在的国家
2-44. 选择您所在的时区
2-45. 选择鼠标类型
2-46. 设置鼠标协议
2-47. 配置鼠标端口
2-48. 配置鼠标端口
2-49. 启动鼠标服务进程
2-50. 测试鼠标功能
2-51. Network Configuration Upper-level
2-52. 选择默认的 MTA
2-53. Ntpdate 配置
2-54. Network Configuration Lower-level
2-55. 选择配置方法菜单
2-56. 选择默认桌面
2-57. 选择软件所的种类
2-58. 选择软件包
2-59. 安装软件包
2-60. 确认安装的软件包
2-61. 选择用户
2-62. 添加用户信息
2-63. 退出用户和组管理
2-64. 退出安装
13-1. Concatenated Organization
13-2. Striped Organization
13-3. RAID-5 Organization
13-4. A Simple Vinum Volume
13-5. A Mirrored Vinum Volume
13-6. A Striped Vinum Volume
13-7. A Mirrored, Striped Vinum Volume
List of Examples
2-1. 使用已存在的分区
2-2. 缩减已现在的分区
3-1. Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition Names
3-2. Conceptual Model of a Disk
4-1. 下载一个package然后在本地安装：
6-1. 在 FreeBSD 4.X 上创建一个交换文件
6-2. 在 FreeBSD 5.X 上创建一个交换文件：
7-1. boot0 Screenshot
7-2. boot2的屏幕输出
7-3. 在/etc/ttys文件中的不安全控制台
8-1. 配置 adduser 和添加一个新用户，在FreeBSD 4.X版本
8-2. 添加一个新用户在FreeBSD 5.X版本
8-3. 删除用户 交互模式下的帐户删除
8-4. 以超级用户交互执行 chpass 命令
8-5. 以普通用户交互执行 chpass 命令
8-6. 改变你的口令
8-7. 改变其他用户的口令同超级用户的一样
8-8. 使用pw(8)添加一个组
8-9. 使用pw(8)在组中添加用户
8-10. 使用id(1)来决定组成员
10-1. Using SSH to Create a Secure Tunnel for SMTP
12-1. Using dump over ssh
12-2. A Script for Creating a Bootable Floppy
12-3. Using vnconfig to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 4.X
12-4. Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig
12-5. Using mdconfig to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 5.X
12-6. Creating a New File-Backed Disk with mdconfig
12-7. md Memory Disk under FreeBSD 4.X
12-8. Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with mdconfig
12-9. Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with mdmfs
17-1. Adding Terminal Entries to /etc/ttys
19-1. Mounting an Export with amd
19-2. Branch Office or Home Network
19-3. Head Office or Other LAN
19-4. Sending inetd a HangUP Signal
20-1. 配置sendmail 访问数据库
20-2. 邮件别名
20-3. 虚拟域邮件映射的例子
A-1. Checking Out Something from -CURRENT (ls(1)) and Deleting It Again:
A-2. Checking Out the Version of ls(1) in the 3.X-STABLE Branch:
A-3. Creating a List of Changes (as Unified Diffs) to ls(1)
A-4. Finding Out What Other Module Names Can Be Used:

前言

Intended Audience

作为 FreeBSD 的新用户，你将会在本手册第一部分找到 FreeBSD 的安装方法，同时逐渐引入概念和习俗来加强 UNIX® 基础。阅读这部分只需要你有探索的精神和接受新概念的能力。

读完这些之后，手册中很漫长的第二部分是 FreeBSD 中系统管理员感兴趣的所有主题的全面参考。在阅读这些章节的内容时所需要的背景知识都注释在每一章节的大纲里面，如果需要，可在阅读前进行预习。

要获得附加的信息来源列表，请查阅 Appendix B。

相对于第一版的改变

本手册第二版是 FreeBSD 文档计划的成员历时两年完成的顶峰之作。下面是新版本的主要变动：

本手册的组织

这本手册分成了三个逻辑清晰的部分。第一部分起步涵盖了 FreeBSD 的安装和基本使用方法。读者可根据自己的情况按顺序或者跳过一些熟悉的主题来阅读。第二部分系统管理涵盖了 FreeBSD 高级用户所感兴趣的广泛的话题。每个部分由一个简明的大纲开始，这个大纲描述本章节涵盖的内容和读者应该已经知道的知识。这主要是让读者可以更好的选择感兴趣的章节阅读。第三部分包含了资源信息的附录。

Chapter 1， 介绍

向新用户介绍 FreeBSD。它描述了 FreeBSD 计划的历史、目标和开发模式。

Chapter 2，安装

本章将会带领用户完成安装过程。一些高级安装主题例如通过串行控制台安装也涵盖在内。

Chapter 3，UNIX 基础

本章涵盖了 FreeBSD 操作系统基础命令和功能。如果你熟悉 Linux 或者其他类 UNIX 操作系统，你或许可以跳过这章。

Chapter 4，安装应用程序

本章涵盖如何用 FreeBSD 的 ``Ports Collection'' 和标准二进制软件包来安装第三方软件。

Chapter 5，X Window 系统

本章概要的描述了 X Window 系统并详细地介绍了在 FreeBSD 上使用 XFree86，也描述了通用的桌面环境，例如 KDE 和 GNOME。

Chapter 6，配置和调整

本章描述了管理员调整 FreeBSD 系统以优化性能时可能用到的一些参数。也描述了 FreeBSD 中的各种配置文件以及在它们的位置。

Chapter 7，启动过程

本章描述 FreeBSD 的启动过程并且解释了如何用配置选项来控制这个过程。

Chapter 8，用户和基本帐号管理

本章描述了如何创建和操作用户帐号，同样也论述了设置用户资源限制和其他账号管理任务的方法。

Chapter 9，配置 FreeBSD 内核

本章解释为什么你需要配置一个新内核并且为配置、编译和安装一个自定义内核提供了详细的说明。

Chapter 10，安全

本章描述为保证 FreeBSD 系统安全可以用到的不同工具，包括 Kerberos，IPsec，OpenSSH 和网络防火墙。

Chapter 11，打印

本章描述了在 FreeBSD 上管理打印机，包括一些 banner 页、打印者账号和初始设置的相关信息。

Chapter 12，存储

本章描述了怎样用 FreeBSD 来管理存储介质和文件系统。它包含了物理磁盘、RAID 阵列、光学和磁带媒体、后备存储磁盘以及网络文件系统。

Chapter 13，Vinum

本章描述了怎样使用逻辑卷管理器 Vinum。它提供依靠设备的逻辑磁盘和软件 RAID-0、RAID-1 以及 RAID-5。

Chapter 14，本地化

本章描述了如何在 FreeBSD 上使用非英语语言。它涵盖了系统和应用程序级的本地化。

Chapter 15，桌面应用程序

本章列出了一些常用的桌面应用程序，例如 web 浏览器和生产用套件，并且描述了如何在 FreeBSD 上安装它们。

Chapter 16，多媒体

本章描述了如何为你的系统设置声音和视频回放支持。还描述了一些音频和视频应用程序示例。

Chapter 17，串行通信

本章解释了如何连接终端和调制解调器到 FreeBSD 系统。包含拨入和拨出连接。

Chapter 18，PPP 和 SLIP

本章描述了如何用 FreeBSD 通过使用 PPP，SLIP 或者基于以太网的 PPP（PPPoE）来连接远程系统。

Chapter 19，高级网络

本章描述了很多网络话题，包括让局域网上的其他机器共享 Internet 连接、使用网络文件系统、通过 NIS 共享账号信息、设置一个名字服务器等等。

Chapter 20，电子邮件

本章解释了一个 email 服务器的不同组成部分并且研究了最流行的 mail 服务器软件 sendmail 的简单配置话题。

Chapter 21，前沿话题（The cutting edge）

本章解释了 FreeBSD-STABLE、FreeBSD-CURRENT 和 FreeBSD 发行版的区别。它描述了用户如何受益于跟踪一个发展中的系统以及处理要点。

Chapter 22，Linux 二进制兼容性

这章描述了 FreeBSD 的 Linux 兼容性特点。并提供了安装很多流行的 Linux 应用程序的详细说明，例如 Oracle，SAP R/3 和 Mathematica®。

Appendix A，获取 FreeBSD

列出了获得 FreeBSD 安装 CDROM 或 DVDROM 的不同资源，也提供了允许你自由下载 FreeBSD 的不同 Internet 站点。

Appendix B，参考书目

由于本手册触及到了很多不同的主题，因而可能引发你想要获取更多详细的讲解。参考书目列出了很多写作这本书时参考的好书。

Appendix C，Internet 上的资源

讲述了很多对 FreeBSD 用户有用的能够提出问题然后进行技术交流的关于 FreeBSD 的论坛。

Appendix D，PGP 秘钥

列出了一些 FreeBSD 开发者的 PGP 签名。

本书中使用的一些约定

为了使本书保持一致性和易读性特做了以下约定：

排版约定

斜体

斜体 字用来表示文件名、URLs、强调文字和术语的第一用法。

反白

反白 字用来表示错误信息、命令、环境变量、port的名字、主机名、用户名、组名、设备名以及变量和代码片断。

粗体

粗体 字用来表示应用程序、命令和关键字。

用户输入

按键用粗体来突出于其他文本。组合键意味着字用‘+’连接时，同时的按下它们，例如：

Ctrl+Alt+Del

意味着你应该同时按下 Ctrl，Alt 和 Del 键。

按顺序依次键入的关键字通常是用逗号隔开，例如：

Ctrl+X, Ctrl+S

这意味着用户应该同时按Ctrl 和 X，然后同时按 Ctrl 和 S。

示例

以 E:\> 开头的例子代表一个 MS-DOS® 命令。除非另有说明，这些命令都可以在一个现代的 Microsoft® Windows® ``命令行''窗口环境被执行。

E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:

以 # 开头的例子代表必须以 FreeBSD 超级用户身份执行的命令。以可以用 root 身分登陆来输入这些命令，或者以普通账号登陆然后用 su(1) 来获得超级用户权限。

# dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0

以 % 开头的例子代表命令应该被普通账号执行。除非另有说明，C-shell 语法来设置环境变量和其他 shell 命令。

% top

致谢

你所看到的这本书是全球几百人努力的结果。无论他们只是纠正一些错误或提交完整的章节，所有的贡献都是非常有用的。

一些公司通过提供资金让作者专注于文档开发、提供出版资金等等方式来支持文档开发。其中，BSDi（后并入Wind River Systems）资助 FreeBSD 文档计划成员来专职改善这本书直到2000年三月第一个印刷版（ISBN 1-57176-241-8）的出版。Wind River Systems 同时资助其他作者来对输出结构做很多改进和给文章添加一些附加章节。这项工作结束于2001年11月印刷第二版（ISBN 1-57176-303-1）。

I. 起步

手册的以下章节主要是针对刚开始使用Freebsd的用户及管理员:

  • Freebsd入门。

  • 安装过程向导。

  • 教你UNIX 基本知识和基本原理。

  • 展示如何在FreebSD上安装大量的第三方应用。

  • 介绍使用X, the UNIX 窗口系统, 以及为一些生产环境配置桌面环境的细节。

我们尝试用最少的页数来保持前言的索引，以至于可以用最少翻页次数将该手册从头至尾读过。

Table of Contents
1. 介绍
2. 安装 FreeBSD
3. UNIX Basics
4. 安装应用程序: Packages 和 Ports
5. X Window 系统

Chapter 1. 介绍

Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten by Jim Mock.

1.1. 概要

非常感谢你对FreeBSD有兴趣！在这一章节中，将介绍有关FreeBSD计划的各个方面，例如它的历史， 目标和开发模式，等等。

读完这章，你将了解到：

  • FreeBSD与其它计算机操作系统的关系是怎样的。

  • FreeBSD计划的历史。

  • FreeBSD计划的目标。

  • FreeBSD开放源代码开发模式的基础知识。

  • ``FreeBSD'' 这个名称的由来。

1.2. 欢迎来到FreeBSD的世界

FreeBSD是一个同时支持Inter(x86)，DEC Alpha™和Sun UltraSPARC®处理器体系结构的以4.4BSD-Lite为基础的操作系统。其他体系结构的Port也正在发展中。你能阅读到 FreeBSD的历史，或者当前版。假如你有兴趣为这一计划 做点事情（代码，硬件，不记名的资金）， 可以参见为FreeBSD做贡献 的文章

1.2.1. FreeBSD能做些什么？

FreeBSD有许多非凡的特性。如下：

  • 动态的抢先式多任务处理机制 使得应用程序与用户，即使是在巨大的负荷下，也能够 确保平滑、稳定地共享资源。

  • 多用户设备 允许许多用户同时使用同一FreeBSD系统做各种事情。也就是说，如打印机 和磁带机这样的系统外设可以让系统或网络上的所有用户适当地共享，也可以对个别用户或用户群使用的重要系统资 源予以限制，以保护系统不致被过度使用。

  • 拥有支持如SLIP、PPP、NFS、DHCP、NIS等协议的强大 TCP/IP 网络，意味着FreeBSD 机器很容易和其他系统互操作。还能作为企业级服务器，提供重要的功能，如NFS（远程文件访问）及电子邮件服 务，可以让你的系统连上Internet并提供WWW、FTP、路由及防火墙（安全）服务。

  • 内存保护机制 保护应用程序（或用户）间不会相互冲突。一个应用程序的崩溃不会以任何 方式影响其他应用程序。

  • FreeBSD是一个 32位 操作系统(支持Alpha和ultrasparc的64位系统 ) ， 并且从开始就是如此设计的。

  • 业界标准的X Window 系统（X11R6）为一般成本的VGA显示卡和监视器提供了一个图形 用户接口（GUI），还能得到完整的源代码。

  • FreeBSD 的很多程序和Linux，SCO，SVR4，BSDI和NetBSD有很好的二进制代码兼容性

  • 数以千计的可 直接安装 的应用程序可以从ports 和 packages collection找到。你不必在网上来找这些软件了。

  • 在互联网上有数以千计的容易安装的应用程序。 FreeBSD和最流行的商业UNIX系统源代码 兼容；大多数应用程序需要很少的改变，即便要，只要进行编译就可以了。

  • 页式请求 虚拟内存 和 ``集成的虚拟内存/高速缓冲存储器'' 的设计，提供了令人满意的高效率 的应用程序执行速度。尤其是运行耗费大量内存的应用软件时，扔能支持很多用户的访问。

  • SMP 提供对多处理器的支持

  • 拥有完全支持 C, C++, Fortran和 Perl 的开发工具。许多其他的用于高级研究和开发的程序语言也可以在软件包中找到。

  • 完整的系统源代码使用户拥有对系统最大限度的控制权。当你拥有了一个真正的 开放系统时，为什么还要受困于私有的解决方案，受商业公司的支配呢？

  • 丰富的 在线文档.

  • 还有很多的特性，在此不一一列举了。

FreeBSD是在加州大学伯克利分校的计算机系统研究组（CSRG）开发的4.4BSD-Lite基础上发展起来的，它一 直坚持BSD系统开发的优良传统。除了CSRG提供的优良工作，FreeBSD计划已经花了很多时间来协调系统，使其在 真实负荷环境下有最好的性能和最高的可靠性。许多商业巨人致力于提高PC操作系统的特色、性能与可靠性时， FreeBSD现在已能提供!

FreeBSD 可以提供的应用仅局限于你的想象力。从软件开发到工厂自动化，从存货控制到卫星角度的远程控制； 商业化的unix产品能做到的，用FreeBSD 照样也可以做到，很可能做的更多。FreeBSD也特别得益于全世界的研究中心 和大学为它提供数千的高质量的应用程序，这些程序通常只要很少的开销甚至免费。商业的应用程序也在不断的出现。

因为FreeBSD自己的源代码是完全公开的，所以对于某些特殊的应用程序或者项目，可以对系统进行最大限度的定制。 对此，那些商业化操作系统往往做不到。以下是当前人们应用FreeBSD的某些程序的例子：

  • Internet 服务： FreeBSD强大的TCP/IP网络性能，使它成为能够提供多种Internet服务的 理想平台，例如：

    • FTP服务器

    • 万维网服务器(标准的或安全的 [SSL])

    • 防火墙和NAT(``IP伪装'') 网观

    • 电子邮件服务器

    • USENET新闻组和电子布告栏系统

    • 等等。

    有了FreeBSD ，可以先用廉价的386PC，当你的企业壮大后再来升级机器至带有RAID存储设备的四路 Xeon处理器的服务器。

  • 教育上：你是一个读计算机科学或者相关工程领域的学生吗？再也没有比FreeBSD 可以提供的实际操作经验更好的方法来学习操作系统、计算机体系结构和网络了。许多可以自由使用的CAD，数学 计算和图形设计软件包同样可以使主要兴趣在计算机上的人做其它事情更有帮助！

  • 研究上： 有了完整的系统源代码，FreeBSD就成为了一个研究操作系统和其他计算机 科学分支的优秀平台。FreeBSD自由取得的特性，同样可以使处在不同地方的开发团队在开放的论坛上讨论问题， 交流想法与合作开发成为可能，且不必担心特别的版权协定或者限制。

  • 网络上：你需要一个新的路由器，一个域名解析服务器（DNS），一个避免外部人员进 入你的内部网络的防火墙吗？FreeBSD很容易把那些放在角落里的已经不使用的386或486PC机变成具有精密的包过 滤功能的高级路由器。

  • X Window 工作站： 作为廉价的X终端解决方案，无论是使用免费的Xfree86服务器还是 一个由Xi Graphics提供的优秀的商业服务器，FreeBSD都是一个好的选择。不像 X终端，如果需要，FreeBSD允许很多应用程序在本地运行。因此，就减少了中心服务器的负荷。FreeBSD甚至能引导``无盘工作站''，使得专用工作站更便宜和易于管理。

  • 软件开发：基本的FreeBSD系统拥有包括著名的GNU C/C++编译器和调试工具在内的一整 套开发工具。

FreeBSD可以以源代码的形式从CDROM，DVD中获得，也可以通过匿名FTP的形式获得。请看Appendix A 关于获取FreeBSD的更多信息。

1.2.2. 谁在使用FreeBSD?

在Internet上，FreeBSD 被用来支持许多大网站，包括：

等等。

1.3. 关于FreeBSD计划

下面介绍有关这个计划的背景信息，包括简要的历史，计划的目标，以及这个计划的开发模式。

1.3.1. FreeBSD的简要历史

提供Jordan Hubbard.

FreeBSD 计划开始于1993年的早些时候，部分地源于一组``非正式的386BSD Patchkit计划 ''，它的三个 协调人是：Nate Williams，Rod Grimes和我。

我们最初的想法是做一个386BSD的测试版以修正许多patchkit 无法解决的问题。你们中的一些人或许 记得这个计划的最初名称是``386BSD 0.5'' 或者``386BSD Interim''， 就是因为如此。

386BSD was Bill Jolitz's operating system, which had been up to that point suffering rather severely from almost a year's worth of neglect. As the patchkit swelled ever more uncomfortably with each passing day, we were in unanimous agreement that something had to be done and decided to assist Bill by providing this interim ``cleanup'' snapshot. Those plans came to a rude halt when Bill Jolitz suddenly decided to withdraw his sanction from the project without any clear indication of what would be done instead.

没过多久，我们认为在没有Bill的支持下，项目仍有保留的价值。因此，我们采用了David Greenman的意见，给其命名为 `` FreeBSD ''。在和当时的几个系统的用户商量后，我们提出了最初的目标。一旦这件事明朗化后，这个计划就走上 了正轨，甚至可能成为现实。为了增加FreeBSD的发行渠道，我抱着试试看的心态，联系了光盘商Walnut Creek CDROM，以便那 些上网不方便的用户得到FreeBSD。Walnut Creek CDROM不仅支持发行FreeBSD光盘版的想法，还为这个计划提供了所需的计算机 和高速网络接入。在那时，没有Walnut Creek CDROM对一个完全未知的计划的空前信任，FreeBSD不太可能像它今天这样，影响如此 深远，发展如此快速。

FreeBSD 的第一张光盘版FreeBSD 1.0于1993年10发布。这个版本是基于加州大学伯克利分校的4.3BSD-Lite (``Net/2'') 磁带的。同时，386BSD和自由软件基金会也为其提供了很多组件。对于第一次发行，这算是相当成功了。在1994年5月，我们发布了更加 成功的FreeBSD1.1版。

大约那时，一些意外的事情发生了。Novell和加州大学伯克利分校决定就伯克利Net/2磁带的归属权问题打一场马拉松式的官司。判决的结果 是，加州大学伯克利分校承认Net/2很大一部分代码是``侵占来的''且这些代码归Novell公司所拥有。这些代码是Novell不久前从 AT&T 买来的。伯克利得到了来自Novell的 ``祝福''：4.4BSD-Lite发行后，将不认为是侵权，且强烈建议现存的Net/2的用户更换新版。这也包括 FreeBSD，我们的计划被要求在1994年6月底停止发行基于Net/2的产品。在此协议允许的时间内，本计划被允许发行最后一版，也就是FreeBSD1.1.5.1。

FreeBSD then set about the arduous task of literally re-inventing itself from a completely new and rather incomplete set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The ``Lite'' releases were light in part because Berkeley's CSRG had removed large chunks of code required for actually constructing a bootable running system (due to various legal requirements) and the fact that the Intel port of 4.4 was highly incomplete. It took the project until November of 1994 to make this transition, at which point it released FreeBSD 2.0 to the net and on CDROM (in late December). Despite being still more than a little rough around the edges, the release was a significant success and was followed by the more robust and easier to install FreeBSD 2.0.5 release in June of 1995.

我们于1996年8月发布了FreeBSD 2.1.5版，它在ISP和商业团体中非常流行。FreeBSD 2.1.7.1版顺着2.1-STABLE 分支应运而生，它发布于1997年2月。在这时，停止了2.1-STABLE的主流开发。现在，它处于维护模式，仅仅提供安全性 的增强和其他严重的错误修补的维护。(RELENG_2_1_0)。

FreeBSD2.2版作为RELENG_2_2分支，于1996年11月从开发主线(``-CURRENT'')分出来。它的第一个完整版 (2.2.1)于1997年4月发布出来。97年夏秋之间，顺着2.2分支的更进一步的版本在开发。其最后一版 (2.2.8)于1998年11月发布 出来。1998年10月发布了正式的3.0版，它代替了2.2分枝。

1999年1月20日又出现了新的分支，是4.0-CURRENT和 3.X-STABLE分支。从3.X-STABLE开始，3.1发布于1999年 2月15日，3.2发布于1999年5月15日，3.3发布于1999年9月16日，3.4发布于1999年10月20日，3.5发布于2000年6月24 日。不久后，3.5版经过很少的修补升级至3.5.1版，它加入了对Kerberos安全性方面的修补。3.5.1版是3.X分支的最后一版。

到了2000年3月13日，又出现了一个分支，为4.X-STABLE分支。现在，采用``current-stable分支方法''。迄今为止， 已经发行了好几个4.X-STABLE版本。4.0-RELEASE于2000年3月发布，and the most recent 4.9-RELEASE came out in October 2003. 沿着4.X-stable (RELENG_4)分支将有后续版本，直到2003年。

2003年1月19日公布了被期待已久的5.0-RELEASE。它是将近三年工作的顶点。这个版本使FreeBSD有了对多处理器和多线程 的支持，引进了对UltraSPARC和64位 平台的支持。5.0版的下一版是5.1版，它发布于2003年6月。除了许多新特性， 5.X版还包括许多系统体系结构的主要发展。然而，随同这些先进的机制，带给系统非常大数量的新的且没有经过全面测试的代码。因此， 当4.X 系列作为``产品'' 版时，5.X版只能称作``新技术''。5.X将很快地被发布为stable版，我们将着手下一版 6.0-CURRENT的开发。

现在，对5.X-CURRENT (trunk)分支的长期开发计划在继续着。5.X的测试版光盘（当然还有在网络上的）一直在生产， 当项目取得进展时你可以从 测试版服务器 下载它。

1.3.2. FreeBSD Project Goals

提供Jordan Hubbard.

FreeBSD 计划的目标是提供软件，这些软件可以供那些不管出于什么目的和不要限制的人使用。 我们中的许多人对代码（和计划）都有非常大的投入和研究，当然也不介意一些资金上的补偿，不管是 现在或着是将来。但是，我们确定不准备坚持这么做。我们认为我们的首要``使命''是为任 何人和新来者提供代码，不管他们出于什么目的。以便代码能得到最大限度的利用，带给使用者最大的 好处。我认为这是自由软件和我们的狂热支持者的一个最基本的目标。

That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU General Public License (GPL) or Library General Public License (LGPL) comes with slightly more strings attached, though at least on the side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite. Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL software we do, however, prefer software submitted under the more relaxed BSD copyright when it is a reasonable option to do so.

1.3.3. FreeBSD的开发模式

提供Satoshi Asami.

FreeBSD的开发是一个非常开放且有有伸缩性的过程,就像你从我们的贡献者列表 看到的，它是完全由来自 全世界的数以百计的贡献者发展起来的。FreeBSD的开发基础结构允许数以百计的开发者通过互联网协同工作。我们 经常关注新的开发者和新的想法，那些有兴趣更进一步参与FreeBSD计划的人可以通过邮件列表freebsd-hackers@FreeBSD.org与 我们进行交流。那些希望使其他FreeBSD用户了解他们的工作领域的人也可以使用邮件列表freebsd-announce@FreeBSD.org。

无论是独立地工作或者封闭式的团队工作，了解FreeBSD计划和它的开发过程都是有益的：

CVS仓库

FreeBSD的中央源代码树是由CVS (并行版本控制系统)来维护的。 CVS是与FreeBSD捆绑发行的可自由获得的源代码控制工具。主CVS 仓库放置在美国加利福尼亚州Santa Clara的一台机器上，它被复制到全世界的大量镜像机器上。CVS树包括了-CURRENT 和-STABLE 树，它同样可以很容易地复制到你的机器上。 请查阅 同步你的源代码树这部分来获取更多信息。

维护者列表

维护者是那些对CVS树有修改权力的人，他们被批准修改FreeBSD的源代码( the term ``维护者'' 可以对CVS仓库进行修改，这个词来自于commit 这个命令)。通过维护者列表提交修正最好的方式是使用send-pr命令。如果在提交建议的过程中遇到问题， 也可以发电子邮件与cvs-committers@FreeBSD.org联系。

FreeBSD核心团队

如果把FreeBSD计划看作一个公司，那么FreeBSD核心团队就是懂事长。FreeBSD核心团队的主要任务是，确保该计划作为一个整体，有好的总体规划和正确的发展方向。当有成员离开，需要增加新的核心团队成员时，邀请那些勇于献身和有责任心的开发者加入我们的维护者队伍是核心团队的主要职责之一。当前的核心团队是在2002年6月从很多维护者候选人中选举出来的。此选举每两年举行一次。

一些核心团队成员还负责特定的责任范围，也就是说，他们有义务确保系统里某一大部分运行如所宣称的那样。FreeBSD开发者的完整列表和他们的责任范围，请参见贡献者列表

Note: 所有的核心团队成员都没有接受经济上的援助，而是以志愿者身份加入FreeBSD的开发的。因此， ``义务''同样不该被误解为 ``有保证的支持。''前面所述 ``董事会'' 的类推并不十分准确。或许更好的说法是，他们是一群愿意放弃他们的生活，投身于FreeBSD计划而非选择其个人更好的生活的人！

外围贡献者

事实上，最大的开发团队正是为我们提供反馈和错误修补的用户自己。与FreeBSD更加非集中开发方式保持联系的最主要的方法是订阅邮件列表freebsd-hackers@FreeBSD.org，在那里可以讨论很多事情。请看Appendix C来获得更多FreeBSD邮件列表的信息。

FreeBSD 贡献者列表 是长的而且在不断增长中，为什么不加入它来为FreeBSD做贡献呢？

提供代码不是为这个计划做贡献的唯一方式。有一个更完整的需要做的事情的列表，可以参见 FreeBSD计划的官方网站.

总的来说，我们的开发模式被组织成一组没有限制的同心圆。集中式的开发模式是为了FreeBSD的用户 的使用方便，同时提供了一种简单的方式使他们容易维护中心源代码,以不把潜在的贡献者排除在外！我们的愿望是提供一整套连贯的易于用户安装和使用的应用程序的稳定操作系统。这种模式在完成目标的过程中工作很有效。

我们对于那些想要加入，成为FreeBSD开发者的期待是：具有如同当前其他人一样的投入，来确保持续的成功！

1.3.4. 当前的FreeBSD发行版

FreeBSD是一个免费使用且带有完整源代码的以4.4BSD-Lite为基础的系统，它支持 Intel i386、i486、pentium Pentium pro， Celeron， Pentium II， Pentium III， Pentium 4(或者兼容系统)， Xeon,DEC Alpha 和Sun sparc这些基本的计算机系统。它以加州大学伯克利分校CSRG的软件为基础，并加入了NetBSD， OpenBSD， 386BSD和自由软件基金会的增强部分。

自从1994年FreeBSD2.0发布以来，FreeBSD的性能，功能，稳定性都有了显著的提高。 最大的变化是通过集成VM/file高速缓存技术更新了虚拟内存系统，不仅提升了性能，而且减少了FreeBSD对内存的需要，使得5MB内存成为最小的配置。其他的改进包括完整的NIS客户端和服务器端的支持，事务TCP协议支持，按需拨号的PPP，集成的DHCP支持，改进的SCSI子系统，ISDN的支持，ATM，FDDI，快速Gigabit以太网(1000Mbit)支持，提升了最新的Adaptec控制器的支持和修补了很多的错误。

除了最基本的系统软件，FreeBSD还提供了一组拥有数以千计的一般性且广受欢迎的程序组成的软件。到本书付印时，已有超过10,000 软件!这些软件包扩http (WWW) 服务器，游戏，程序语言，编辑器和在其中的所有的东西。完整的ports收集大约需要300 MB 的存储空间。所有软件只提供对原始代码的修正。从老版本1.0 ports collection开始，我们可以容易的升级软件，还可以极大限度地减少磁盘占用空间。如果你想要编译该软件，只要到你希望安装的程序目录下，执行make install，剩下的就留给系统解决了。你要编译的每一个程序完整的原始代码可以从CDROM或本地FTP站检索到。你只需要足够的磁盘空间就可以。几乎每一个软件都提供了预先编译的``package''，可以使用一个简单的命令(pkg_add)来安装，而不要自己来编译源代码。关于packages和ports 的更多信息可以查阅Chapter 4。

在最新版的FreeBSD机器里的/usr/share/doc 目录里，有许多对安装和使用FreeBSD有帮助的附加文档。可以使用HTML浏览器来查阅本地安装手册，地址如下：

FreeBSD手册书

/usr/share/doc/handbook/index.html

FreeBSD FAQ

/usr/share/doc/faq/index.html

你也可以访问FreeBSD的主站(总是频繁的更新) 来获取信息。 http://www.FreeBSD.org/.

Chapter 2. 安装 FreeBSD

结构、组织重整, 部分重写 Jim Mock. sysinstall 操作流程、屏幕抓图以及一般性文件Randy Pratt.

2.1. 概述

FreeBSD 提供了一个以文字为主，简单好用的安装程序，叫做 sysinstall 。这是FreeBSD默认使用的安装程序； 厂商如果想，也可以提供适合自己需要的安装程序。本章说明如何使用 sysinstall 来安装FreeBSD。

学习完本章之后，您将会知道：

  • 如何制作FreeBSD安装磁盘

  • FreeBSD如何参照及分割您的硬盘

  • 如何启动 sysinstall.

  • 在执行 sysinstall 时你将要回答的问题、 问题代表什么意义，以及该如何回答它们。

在阅读本章之前，您应该：

  • 阅读你要安装的FreeBSD版本所附的硬件支持列表以确定您的硬件有没有被支持。

Note: 一般来说，此安装说明是针对 i386™ (``PC 兼容机'') 体系结构的电脑。 　　　如果有其它体系结构(如Alpha)的安装说明，我们将一并列出。 　虽然本文档经常保持更新，但有可能与你安装版本上所带的说明文档有些许出入。 　在这里建议你使用本说明文章作为一般性的安装指导参考手册。

2.2. 安装前的准备工作

2.2.1. 列出你电脑的硬件清单

在安装FreeBSD之前，您应该试着将您电脑中的硬件清单列出来。FreeBSD 安装程序会将这些硬件(磁盘、网卡、光驱等等)以及型号及制造厂商列出来。 FreeBSD也会尝试为这些设备找出最适当的IRQ及IO端口的设定。但是因为PC的硬件 种类实在太过复杂，这个步骤不一定总是能成功。这时，您就可能需要手动更改有 问题的设备的设定值。

如果你已经安装了其它的操作系统，如Windows或Linux，那么您可以先由 这些系统所提供的工具来查看您的设备设定值是怎么分配的。如果您真的没办法 确定某些接口卡用什么设定值，那么您可以检查看看，说不定它的设定已经标示 在卡上。常用的IRQ号号码为3、5以及7；IO端口的值通常以16进制位表示，例如 Ox330。

我们建议您在安装FreeBSD之前把这些信息打印或记录下来，做成表格 的样子也许会比较有帮助，例如：

Table 2-1. 硬件设备清单

设备名 IRQ IO 端口号 备注
第一块硬盘 N/A N/A 40 GB,Seagate制造,第一个IDE接口主设备
CDROM N/A N/A 第一个IDE接口从设备
第二块硬盘 N/A N/A 20 GB, IBM制造, 第二个IDE接口主设备
第一个IDE控制器 14 0x1f0  
网卡 N/A N/A Intel® 10/100
Modem N/A N/A 3Com® 56K faxmodem, on COM1
...      

2.2.2. 备份你的数据

如果你的电脑上面存有重要的数据资料，那么在安装FreeBSD请前确定 　您已经将这些资料备份了，并且先测试这些备份文档是否有问题。FreeBSD 　安装程序在要写入任何资料到您的硬盘前都会先提醒您确认，一旦您确定要 　写入，那么以后就没有反悔的机会。

2.2.3. 决定要将FreeBSD安装到哪里

如果你想让FreeBSD使用整个硬盘，那么请直接跳到下一节。

但是，如果您想让FreeBSD跟您已有的系统并存，那么您必须对您数据 　存在硬盘的分布方式有深入的了解以及其所造成的影响。

2.2.3.1. i386™体系结构的硬盘分配方式

一个PC硬盘可以被细分为许多分散的区域。这些区域叫做 分区(partitions)。 由于设计的原因，每个硬盘仅 支持四个分区；这些分区叫做主分区(Primary partion)。 为了突破这个限制以便能使用更多的分区，就有了新的分区类型，叫做 扩展分区(Extended partition)。一个硬盘可以拥有一个扩展分区。在 扩展分区里可以建立许多个所谓的逻辑分区(Logical partitions)。 　　　

每个分区都有其独立的分区号(partition ID), 用以区分每个分区的数据类型。FreeBSD分区的分区号为165。

一般而言，每种操作系统都会有自己独特的方式来区别分区。例如Dos及其 之后的Windows，会分配给每个主分区及逻辑分区一个驱动器字符 (drive letter),从C:开始。

FreeBSD 必须安装在主分区。 FreeBSD可以在这个分区上面存放系统数据 或是您建立的任何文件。然而，如果您有多个硬盘，您也可以在这些硬盘上(全部 或部分)建立FreeBSD分区。在您安装FreeBSD的时候，必须要有一个分区可以给 FreeBSD使用。这个分区可以是尚未规划的分区或是已经划好，但是里面的数据 您都不想保存的分区。

如果您已经用完了您硬盘上的所有分区，那么您必须使用其它操作系统所 　　　　提供的工具(如DOS或Windows下的fdisk)来腾出一个分区 　　　　给FreeBSD使用。

如果您的某个分区有多余的空间，您可以使用它。但是使用前您需要先整理 一下这些分区。

FreeBSD最小安装需要约100 MB的空间，但是这仅是 非常very 基本的安装，几乎没有地剩下多少空间可以建立您自己的文件。一个较理想的最小安装是 250 MB，不含图形界面；或是350 MB以上，包含图形界面。如果您还需要安装 其它的第三方厂商的套件，那么将需要更多的硬盘空间。

您可以使用商业软件，例如PartitionMagic®(硬盘分区魔术师) 来建立给FreeBSD使用的空间。FreeBSD光盘的tools 目录包含两个免费的工具也可以完成这个工作：FIPS 以及 PResizer。FIPS, PResizer, 和PartitionMagic 能够改变FAT16 以及 FAT32分区大小-- 在MS-DOS方式下使用以及 Windows ME。这些工具的说明文件可以在同一个目录下面找到 PartitionMagic是唯一知道能改变NTFS 分区大小的应用软件。

Warning不当的使用这些工具可能会删掉您硬盘上的数据资料！在使用这些工具前 前确定您有最近、没问题的备份数据。

Example 2-1. 使用已存在的分区

假设您只有一个4 GB的硬盘，而且已经装了Windows 然后您将这个硬盘分成两个 分区C: 跟 D:, 每个分区大小为 2 GB。在 C:分区上存放有1 GB的数据、 D:分区上存放0.5 GB的数据。

这意味着你的盘上有两个分区，一个驱动器符号是一个分区(如c:、d:)。 您可以把所有存放在D: 分区上的数据拷贝到 C:分区,这样就空出了一个分区(d:)给FreeBSD使用。

Example 2-2. 缩减已现在的分区

假设您只有一个4 GB的硬盘，而且已经装了Windows。您在安装Windows的时候 把4 GB都给了 C: 分区，并且已经使用了1.5 GB的空间。 您想将剩余空间中的2 GB给FreeBSD使用。

为了安装FreeBSD，您必须从下面两种方式中选择一种：

  1. 备份Windows的数据资料，然后重新安装Windows，并给Windows分配2 GB 　　的空间。

  2. 使用上面提及的 PartitionMagic,来整理 或切割您的分区。

2.2.3.2. Alpha体系结构的硬盘分配方式

在Alpha上，您必须使用一整颗硬盘给FreeBSD，没有办法在同一个硬盘上跟 其它操作系统共存。根据不同的Alpha机器，您的硬盘可以是SCSI或IDE硬盘，只要 您的机器可以从这些硬盘开机就可以。

按照 Digital / Compaq使用手册书写的惯例，所有SRM输入的部分都用大写 表示。注意，SRM大小写有别。

要想得知您硬盘的名称以及型号，可以在SRM console 提示符下使用 SHOW DEVICE 命令:

>>>SHOW DEVICE
dka0.0.0.4.0               DKA0           TOSHIBA CD-ROM XM-57  3476
dkc0.0.0.1009.0            DKC0                       RZ1BB-BS  0658
dkc100.1.0.1009.0          DKC100             SEAGATE ST34501W  0015
dva0.0.0.0.1               DVA0
ewa0.0.0.3.0               EWA0              00-00-F8-75-6D-01
pkc0.7.0.1009.0            PKC0                  SCSI Bus ID 7  5.27
pqa0.0.0.4.0               PQA0                       PCI EIDE
pqb0.0.1.4.0               PQB0                       PCI EIDE

此范例使用 Digital Personal Workstation 433au 并且显示出此机器联接 有三个硬盘。第一个是 CDROM ，叫做DKA0 ；另外两个 是两个硬盘，分别叫做 DKC0 及 DKC100 。

硬盘名称中有 DKx 字样的是SCSI硬盘。例如 DKA100表示是一个SCSI设备，其SCSI ID 为1，位于 第一个SCSI接口 (A)。 DKC300 表示一个SCSI硬盘， SCSI ID为3，位于第三个SCSI接口 (C)。设备名称 PKx 表示SCSI控制卡。由以上 SHOW DEVICE 指令的输出结果看来， SCSI光盘也被视为是SCSI硬盘的一种。

IDE 硬盘的名称类似 DQx,而 PQx 则表示相对应的硬盘控制器。

2.2.4. 收集你的网络配置相关资料

如果您想通过网络(FTP或是NFS)安装FreeBSD，那么您就必须知道您的网络配置 信息。在安装FreeBSD的过程中将会提示您输入这些资料，以顺利完成安装过程。

2.2.4.1. 使用以太网或电缆/DSL Modem

如果您通过局域网或是要通过网卡使用电缆/DSL上网，那么您必须准备下面 的信息:

  1. IP 地址。

  2. 默认网关IP地址。

  3. 主机名称。

  4. DNS服务器的IP地址。

  5. 子网掩码。

如果您不知道这些信息，您可以询问系统管理员或是您的网络服务提供者。 他们可能会说这些信息会由 DHCP自动分配；如果这样 的话，请记住这一点就可以了。

2.2.4.2. 使用Modem连接

如果您由ISP提供的拨号服务上网，您仍然可以通过它安装FreeBSD，只是会 需要很长的时间。

您必须知道：

  1. 拨号到ISP的电话号码。

  2. 你的modem是连接到哪个 COM 端口。

  3. 你拨号到ISP所用的账号和密码。

2.2.5. 检查FreeBSD有没有错误

虽然我们尽力使得每个FreeBSD释出版本都很稳定，但是过程中仍然不免有时 会发现错误。在很罕见的情形下，这些错误会影响到安装过程。当我们发现这些 错误并且修正后，会将它们列在FreeBSD网站的 FreeBSD Errata(勘误表)中, 在您安装FreeBSD前应该 先看看勘误表中有没有什么问题会影响到您的安装。

关于所有释出版本的信息，包括勘误表，可以在 FreeBSD 网站 释出版本信息 这一章节中找到。

2.2.6. 准备安装介质

FreeBSD可以通过下面任何一种安装介质进行安装：

安装介质

  • 光盘CDROM or DVD

  • 在同一计算机上的DOS分区

  • SCSI or QIC 磁带

  • 软盘

网络

  • 通过防火墙的一个FTP站点，或使用HTTP代理。

  • NFS 服务器

  • 一个指定的并行或串行接口

如果你购买了FreeBSD的光盘或DVD，那么您就拥有了安装所必须的一切。 您可以跳到下一节(准备引导介质)。 　　　

如果您没有FreeBSD的安装文件，您应该跳到Section 2.13 它向您解释了怎样准备上面列出的任何一种FreeBSD的安装介质。读完这一节后，你应该再 回到这里，并且阅读Section 2.2.7。

2.2.7. 准备引导介质

FreeBSD的安装过程开始于将您的电脑开机进入FreeBSD安装环境--－并非在 其它的操作系统上运行一个程序。计算机通常使用安装在硬盘上的操作系统进行 引导，也可以配置成使用一张``bootable(可引导)'' 的软盘进行启动。 大多数现代计算机都可以从光驱进行引导系统。

Tip: 如果你有FreeBSD的安装光盘或DVD(或者是你购买的，或者是你自己准备的。) 并且你的计算机可以从光驱进行启动 (通常在BIOS中会有 ``Boot Order'' 或类似的选项可以设置),那么您就可以跳过此小节。因为FreeBSD光盘及DVD光盘者是可 以引导的，用它们开机您不用做什么特别的准备。

一般来说，要建立安装盘(软盘)请依照下列步骤：

  1. 获取开机软盘映像文件

    开机软盘映像文件可以在您的安装介质的 floppies/ 目录下找到，或是您可以到 floppies directory 下载i386版本到 floppies directory 下载Alpha版本。

    软盘映像文件的扩展名为 .flp。在 　　floppies/ 目录下包含了许多不同的映像文件，根据您 　　要安装的FreeBSD版本有不同的映像文件；有时候不同的硬件也需要不同的映像 　　文件, 在大部分的情形下，您需要两个文件： kern.flp 　　和 mfsroot.flp. 另处不同的系统可能需要额处的硬件 　　驱动程序。这些驱动程序在 drivers.flp 映像文件里 　　提供。查看同一目录下的 README.TXT 文件以获得最新 　　的软盘映像文件信息。

    Important: 您的FTP程序必须使用 二进制模式来下载这些映 　　　像文件。有些浏览器只会用text (或ASCII ) 模式来传输数据，用这些浏览器下载的映像文件做成的软盘可 　　　能无法正常开机。

  2. 准备软盘

    您必须为您下载的每一个映像文件准备一张软盘。并且请避免使用到坏掉的 　　软盘。最简单的方式就是您先将这些软盘格式化，不要相信所谓的已格式化的软 　　盘。在Windows下的格式化程序不会告诉你出现多少坏块，它只是简单的标记它 　　们为 ``bad''并且忽略它们。根据建议你应该使用全新的软盘来存放 　　安装程序。

    Important: 如果您在安装FreeBSD的过程中造成当机、冻结或是其它怪异现象，第一个 　　　要怀疑的就是引导软盘。请用其它的软盘制作映像文件再试试看。

  3. 将映像文件写入软盘中

    .flp 文件并非 一般的文件， 您不能直接将它们复制到软盘上。事实上它是一张包含完整磁盘内容的映像文件。这 表示您 不能 简单的使用DOS的copy命令将文件写到软盘上， 而必须使用特别的工具程序将映像文件直接写到软盘中。

    如果您使用MS-DOS或Windows操作系统来制作引导盘，那么您可以使用我们提供 的 fdimage程序来将映像文件写到软盘中。

    如果您使用的是光盘，假设光盘的驱动器符号为E: ， 那么请执行下面的命令：

    E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:

    重复上述命令以完成每个 .flp文件的写入，每换一个 映像文件都必须更换软盘；制作好的软盘请注明是使用哪个映像文件做的。如果您的映 像文件存放在不同的地方，请自行修改上面的指令指向你存放 .flp 文件的地方。要是您没有FreeBSD光盘，您可以到FreeBSD的FTP站点tools 目录 中下载。

    如果您在UNIX系统上制作软盘(例如其它FreeBSD机器)，您可以使用 dd(1) 命令来将映像文件写到软盘中。如果您用 FreeBSD,可以执行下面的命令： 　

    # dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0

    在FreeBSD中，/dev/fd0 指的是第一个软驱(即 A:驱动器 )；/dev/fd1 是 B: 驱动器,依此类推。其它的UNIX系统可能会用 不同的的名称，这时您就要查阅该系统的说明文件。

你现在可以安装FreeBSD了

2.3. 开始安装

Important: 默认情况下, 安装过程并不会改变任何您硬盘中的数据，除非您看到 下面的讯息：

Last Chance: Are you SURE you want continue the installation?

If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!

We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!

在看到这最后的警告讯息前您都可以随时离开安装程序面不会变更您的硬盘。 如果您发现有任何设定错误，这时您可以直接将电源关掉而不会造成任何伤害。

2.3.1. 开机启动

2.3.1.1. 引导i386系统

  1. 从电脑尚未开机开始说起

  2. 将电脑电源打开。刚开始的时候它应该会显示进入系统设置菜单或BIOS 要按哪个键，常见的是 F2, F10, Del, 或 Alt+S。不论是要按哪个键，请按它进入BIOS设置画面。有时您的计算机 可能会显示一个图形画面，典型的做法是按 Esc 将关掉这个图形 画面，以使您能够看到必要的设置信息。

  3. 找到设置开机顺序的选项，它的标记为 ``Boot Order'' 通常会列出一些设备让您选择，例如：Floppy, CDROM, First Hard Disk, 等等。

    如果您要用软盘安装，请确定选到floppy disk；如果您要用光盘安装， 请选择CDROM。为了避免疑惑，请参考您的主板说明手册。

    储存设定并离开，系统应该会重新启动。

  4. 如果您用软盘安装，请将在Section 2.2.7, 一节中制作好的第一张引导盘，里面包含kern.flp。 文件的那张盘，放入软盘驱动器中。

    如果您是从光盘安装，那么开机后请将FreeBSD光盘放入光驱中。

    如果您开机后如往常一样并没有从软盘或光盘引导，请检查：

    1. 是不是软盘或光盘太晚放入面错失开机引导时间。如果是，请将它们 放入后重新开机。

    2. BIOS设定不对，请重新检查BIOS的设定。

    3. 您的BIOS不支持从这些安装介质引导。

  5. FreeBSD 即将启动。如果您是从光盘引导，您会见到类似下面的画面：

    Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
Boot from ATAPI CD-ROM :
 1. FD 2.88MB  System Type-(00)
Uncompressing ... done

BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive B: is disk1
BIOS drive C: is disk2
BIOS drive C: is disk3
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory

FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8

/kernel text=0x277391 data=0x3268c+0x332a8 |

|
Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _

    如果您是从软盘引导，会看到类似下面的画画：

    Verifying DMI Pool Data ........

BTX loader 1.00  BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive C: is disk1
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory

FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8

/kernel text=0x277391 data=0x3268c+0x332a8 |

Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:

    按照指示，将kern.flp 软盘取出，放入 mfsroot.flp 软盘，然后按Enter。

  6. 不论是从软盘或光盘引导，您都会看到下面这段信息：

    Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _

    您可以等待10秒或是按 Enter键跳过。之后就会进入内核 配置菜单。

2.3.1.2. 引导Alpha系统

  1. 从电脑尚未找开电源开始。

  2. 找开电脑电源并等待屏幕上出现开机提示信息。

  3. 如您需要准备安装软盘，请参考Section 2.2.7 。 将用kern.flp做的引导盘放入软驱中然后输入下列命令 (请视实际情况修改命令中的软驱盘符)：

    >>>BOOT DVA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''

    如果您要从光盘引导，请将光盘放入光驱中然后输入下列命令开始安装 (请视情况修改命令中的光驱盘符)：

    >>>BOOT DKA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''

  4. 然后FreeBSD就会启动。如果您从软盘引导，到某个阶段您会看到下面的信息：

    Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:

    按照屏幕指示，将 kern.flp 软盘取出，换上 mfsroot.flp 然后按Enter键。

  5. 不论从软盘或光盘引导，您都会看到下面这段信息：

    Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _

    您可以等待10秒或是按Enter跳过。之后就会进入内核 设定菜单。

2.3.2. 配置内核

Note: 从FreeBSD 5.0版以后, 用户配置已经不赞成使用新的 device.hints(5) 方法，更多的信息device.hints(5)请访问 Section 7.5 　　　

内核 是操作系统最核心的部分。它负责很多工作，包括 存取系统上所有设备，如硬盘、网卡、声卡等等。每一个FreeBSD核心支持的设备都有其 相对应的驱动程序。这些驱动程序的名称由两个或三个字母级成，譬如： sa 表示SCSI存取驱动程序；sio 表示串口I/O驱动程序(管理COM端口)。

录内核启动的时候，每个驱动程序会检查系统中是否有它所支持的设备。如果找到 的话，这些驱动程序就会配置这些设备的状态以代核心使用。

上述设备的检查我们称做 device probing(设备探测). 但是很不幸地，这样做并不是完全安全的。因为有些硬件驱动程序没有办法想到共存， 有时找到这个设备却让另一个设备处在不稳定的状态。这是 PC 设计上的限制。

许多早期的称作ISA的设备--(相对于PCI设备而言)。ISA设备的规格需要将硬件的某些 数据写死在设备上，最具代表性的就是中断号(IRQ)以及IO端口号。这些设定值通常是通 过改变设备上的jumpers(跳线) ,或是使用由厂商提供的DOS工 具程序来改变。

这通常是问题的所在，因为这没办法让两个设备共同分享一个IRQ或是IO端口 地址。

新的设备都按照PCI规格设计，这些设备就没有上述限制；它们会参考BIOS 中的设定然后动态分配IRQ及IO端口地址。

如果您的系统中有任何ISA设备，那么在设置FreeBSD驱动程序的时候您就 必须指定这些设备的IRQ及IO地址。这也是我们在 Section 2.2.1一节中希望您先准备一份设备清单的用意。

仍然很不幸地，预设给某些设备使用的IRQ会跟内存地址互相冲突。这是因为 有些ISA设备出厂的设定值就会跟其它的设备冲突。撇开这个不谈，FreeBSD驱动 程序通常都会根据各制造商设备的出厂设定值来设定，这也是为什么许多设备可 以在FreeBSD顺利驱动的原因。

在跑FreeBSD的时候根本不会有上冲突的问题，因为当两个设备互相冲突的 时候，其中一个设备将被停用(不论您用的是哪种操作系统)。

通常在第一次安装FreeBSD的时候才会有问题，因为内核希望尽是多包含一 些驱动程序，这样才能支持许多不同设备的配置。这意味着在找到的这些设备中 有可能设定值会互相冲突。FreeBSD在探测系统设备的时候会按照一的顺序，如 果您的某个设备在较后面探测到，但是跟前面找到的设备设定冲突，那么在安装 FreeBSD的时候，这个设备不一定能正确雇用。

因为如此，当您在安装FreeBSD前，可以先看看在系统内核中包含了哪些驱 动程序，如果您没有某些设备，则可以将它们的驱动程序删除或是在稍后您也 可以确认您有的设备的设定值有没有问题。

这听起来好像很复杂，但不全然如此。

Figure 2-1 显示的是内核能设置的第一个配置菜单。 我们推荐您选择Start kernel configuration in full-screen visual mode 选项, 因为这对新手来说比较容易。

Figure 2-1. 内核配置菜单

内核配置画面 (图Figure 2-2) 被分成四个部分：

  1. 在``active(可用)''区域的展开式选择菜单分为四个群，例如 Storage(储存设备)、 Network(网络设备)。 每个设备会显示一个对应的说明、由二或三个字母组成的驱动程序名称以及驱动程序 所使用的IRQ和内存地址。另外，如果可用的驱动程序跟另一个可用的驱动程序有冲突， 它们的驱动程序名称之后会显示 CONF 字样。同时栏目标题也会 显示在可用的设备中总共有几个设备有冲突。

  2. 在Inactive(停用)区域的驱动程序仍然保留在内核中，但当内核启动的时候 并不会探测这些设备。这个区域的分组方式跟可用区一样。

  3. 第三区(信息显示区)显示的是目前所选择设备的细节项目设置，包括IRQ及 IO端口地址。

  4. 第四区告诉您这个画面的操作按键。

Figure 2-2. 配置内核可视化视觉接口

在这个阶段，您总是会看到有冲突的设备被列出。请不要担心，因为这是正 常的；前面提到在安装的时候所有的设备都会被启用，而其中的某些设备就会跟 其它的设备产生冲突。

现在您必须逐一检查这些设备驱动程序，然后解决冲突的问题。

解决驱动程序冲突

  1. 按下 X键可以将所选择区域的驱动程序完全展开以方便您 检阅。您可以使用方向键在可用设备区前后移动。

    Figure 2-3 显示按下 X键 后的结果。

    Figure 2-3. 展开驱动程序清单

  2. 停用任何您没有的设备的驱动程序。要停用一个设备，用方向键移动将该 设备反白然后按下 Del键，则此设备驱动程序就会被移到 　　 Inactive Drivers(停用设备区) 列表。

    如果您不小心将一个设备停用，那么请按Tab 切换到 Inactive Drivers 区, 选择被停用的设备，然后按下 Enter键将它移回可用设备区。

    Warning请不要移除sc0。这个驱动程序是控制屏幕 用的，除非您是通过串行线进行安装，否则请不要移除它。

    Warning如果您用的是USB键盘才可以停用 atkbd0 用一般 的键盘请保留此atkbd0设备驱动程序。

  3. 如果现在显示没有冲突，那么您可以跳过这一步骤。否则，剩下的冲突还是必 须解决。如果在信息显示区没有看到 ``allowed conflict(允许冲突)''， 那么您必须改变这边显示的IRQ及内存地址， 或 必须变更设备 上面的IRQ及内存地址。

    要改变设备驱动程序的IRQ及IO端口地址，选择要变更的驱动程序然后 按 Enter键。之后等光标移到第三区(信息显示区)时候您就 可以理发这些设置。您应该输入之前做硬件清单列表的时候所记录的IRQ及IO端 口地址。要完成更改请按 Q 键并回到可用设备区。

    如果您不确定该设定什么值，那么可以试试看 -1。 有些FreeBSD驱动程序在搜寻设备的时候可以安全找出设备的正确设定值；所以这里设置 -1 就是告诉这些驱动程序自行去尝试找出合适的设置。

    如果要直接在设备硬件上改变设定值，设定的方法每种设备都不大相同。有些 设备您必须将它从电脑中拆下来然后调整路线或是DIP开关；其它的可能厂商会提供DOS 工具软盘，里面有程序可以更改这些设定。不论是哪一种方式，您都应该参考设备所附 的使用手册。很明显地，改变这些设定值必须重新开机后才会生效，所以您必须重新进 入FreeBSD安装程序。

  4. 当所有的冲突都解决了以后，您会看到类似Figure 2-4 的画面。

    Figure 2-4. 没有冲突的设备驱动程序状态画面

    如您所见，可用设备列表变得干净多了，只列出您系统中有的设备。

    现在您可以储存所做的改变，然后进到下一个安装步骤。按 Q 键离开设备配置界面，您会看到下面的信息：

    Save these parameters before exiting? ([Y]es/[N]o/[C]ancel)

    回答 Y 保存配置到内存(安装完成后将后保存到磁盘)然后开始 探测设备。在设备探测完毕后，sysinstall 就会启动并且显 示它的主界面。(Figure 2-5)。

    Figure 2-5. Sysinstall 主界面

2.3.3. 查看设备探测的结果

前面屏幕显示的最后几百行字会存在缓冲区中以便您查阅。

要浏览缓冲区，您可以按下 Scroll Lock键，这会开启画面的 卷动功能。然后您就可以使用方向键或PageUp 、PageDown 键来上下翻阅。再按一次 Scroll Lock键将停止画面卷动。 　　　

在您浏览的时候会看到类似 Figure 2-6的画面。 真正的结果依照您的电脑装置而有所不同。

Figure 2-6. 典型的设备探测结果

avail memory = 253050880 (247120K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0817000.
Preloaded mfs_root "/mfsroot" at 0xc0817084.
md0: Preloaded image </mfsroot> 4423680 bytes at 0xc03ddcd4

md1: Malloc disk
Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1:<VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <iSA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0
uhci0 <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci
0
usb0: <VIA 83572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
pci0: <unknown card> (vendor=0x1106, dev=0x3040) at 7.3
dc0: <ADMtek AN985 10/100BaseTX> port 0xe800-0xe8ff mem 0xdb000000-0xeb0003ff ir
q 11 at device 8.0 on pci0
dc0: Ethernet address: 00:04:5a:74:6b:b5
miibus0: <MII bus> on dc0
ukphy0: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus0
ukphy0: 10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xec00-0xec1f irq 9 at device 10.
0 on pci0
ed0 address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
orm0: <Option ROM> at iomem 0xc0000-0xc7fff on isa0
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <Keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60,0x64 on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/@ mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
pppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33
acd0: CD-RW <LITE-ON LTR-1210B> at ata1-slave PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c
/stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0

仔细检查探测结果以确定FreeBSD找到所有您期望出现的设备。如果设备没有 探测到，那么就不会列出。如果此设备需要设定IRQ以及IO端口地址，请您再确定 是否设定的正确。

如果你需要改变某些设备的设置，您可以很容易地退出 sysinstall 程序，然后从头重新来过。这也有助您熟悉这些过程。

Figure 2-7. 选择离开Sysinstall

在主界面使用方向键选择Exit Install您会看到 如下的信息：

                      User Confirmation Requested
         Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot
           (be sure to remove any floppies from the drives).

                            [ Yes ]    No

安装程序将重新启动，如果CDROM还留在光驱里请选择 [Yes]

如果您是从软盘启动，那么重新开机前您必须将 mfsroot.flp 软盘取出再换上kern.flp 软盘。

2.4. 介绍 Sysinstall

sysinstall 是FreeBSD计划所提供的安装程序。 它以console(控制台)为主，分为向个菜单及画面让您配置及控制安装过程。

sysinstall 菜单画面由方向键、Enter 、 Space、以及其它按键所控制。在主画面的Usage菜单 有这些按键的说明。

要查看这些说明，请将光标移到Usage 项目，然后 [Select] 按键被选择，Figure 2-8, 然后按下 Enter键。

安装画面的使用说明会显示出来，阅读完毕请按 Enter键回到主 画面。

Figure 2-8. 选取Sysinstall主菜单的Usage项目

2.4.1. 选择 Documentation(说明文件) 菜单

用方向键从主菜单选择 Doc 条目然后按 Enter键。

Figure 2-9. 选择说明文件菜单

这将会进入说明文件菜单。

Figure 2-10. Sysinstall说明文件菜单

阅读这些说明文件很重要。

要阅读一篇文章，请用方向键选取要阅读的文章然后按 Enter键。 阅读中再按一下Enter 就会回到说明文件画面。

若要回到主菜单，用方向键选择Exit 然后按下 Enter键。

2.4.2. 选择键盘对应(Keymap)菜单

如果要改变键盘按键的对应方式，请在主菜单选取Keymap 然后按Enter键。一般情况下不改变引项，除非你使用了非标准键盘或非 美国键盘。

Figure 2-11. Sysinstall 主菜单

您可以使用上下键移动到您想使用的键盘对应方式，然后按下Space 键以选取它；再按Space 键可以取消选取。当您完成后，请选择[ OK ] 然后按Enter键。

这一屏幕只显示出部分列表。选择 [ Cancel ] 按 Tab 键将使用 默认的键盘对应，并返回到主菜单

Figure 2-12. Sysinstall 键盘对应菜单

2.4.3. 安装选项设置画面

选择 Options 然后按Enter键。

Figure 2-13. Sysinstall 主菜单

Figure 2-14. Sysinstall 选项设置

预设值通常可以适用于大部分的使用者，您并不需要改变它们。版本名称要 根据安装的版本进行变化。

目前选择项目的描述会在屏幕下方以蓝底白字显示。注意其中有一个项目是 Use Defaults(使用默认值)您可以由此项将所有的 设定还原为预设值。

可以按下 F1 来阅读各选项的说明。

按Q 键可以回到主画面。

2.4.4. 开始进行标准安装

Standard(标准) 安装适用于那些初探 UNIX 或 FreeBSD的使用者。用方向键选择 Standard 然后按 Enter 键可开始进入标准安装。

Figure 2-15. 开始进行标准安装

2.5. 分配磁盘空间

您的第一个工作就要要分配线FreeBSD用的硬盘空间以便sysinstall 先做好一些准备。为了完成这个工作，您必须先对FreeBSD如何找到 磁盘信息做一个了解。

2.5.1. BIOS 磁盘编号

当您在系统上安装配置FreeBSD之前，有一个重要的事情一定要注意，尤其 是当您有多个硬盘的时候。

在pc架构，当您跑像MS-DOS 或 Microsoft Windows这种跟BIOS相关的操作 系统的时候，BIOS有能力改变正常的磁盘顺序，然后这些操作系统会跟着BIOS做改变以。 这让使用者不一定非要有所谓的 ``primary master''硬盘开机。许多人发 现最简单而便宜备份系统的方式就是再去买一块一模一样的硬盘，然后定期将数据从第 一块硬盘复制到第二个硬盘，使用 Ghost® 或 XCOPY。所以，当第一个硬盘死了，或者是被病毒破坏， 或者有坏轨道，他们可以调整BIOS中的开机顺序而直接用第二块硬盘开机。这跟将机壳 拆开，把第二块硬盘跟第一块硬盘对调(要调jumper)有同样的效果，差别就是不用拆壳； 因此，对有这方面需求的人而言，直接在BIOS中设定非常方便。

比较昂贵，配有SCSI控制卡的系统通常可以延伸BIOS的功能来让SCSI设备(可达七个) 达到类似改变顺序的功能。

习惯于使用这种方式的使用者可能会感到惊讶，因为在FreeBSD中并非如此。 FreeBSD不会参考BIOS，而且也不知道所谓的 ``BIOS逻辑磁盘对应''。 是怎么回事。这会让人感觉很疑惑，明明就是一样的硬盘而且资料也完全从另一块 复制过来的，结果却没办法像以前那样用。

当使用FreeBSD以前，请将BIOS中的硬盘开机顺序调回正常的顺序，并且以后 不要再改变。如果您仍然需要交换硬盘，那请用硬件的方式，打开机壳，调整调线。

范例：Bill和Fred的安装历险

Bill 替Fred把旧的， Wintel的机器别外装上 FreeBSD。他装了一台SCSI硬盘， ID是0，然后把FreeBSD装在上面。

Fred 开始使用他新的FreeBSD系统；但是过了几天，他发现这旧的SCSI 硬盘发生了许多小问题。之后，他就跟Bill说起这件事。

又过了几天，Bill决定是该解决问题的时候了，所以他从后面房间的硬盘 ``收藏'' 中找出了一个一模一样的硬盘，并且经过表面测试后显示这块 硬盘没有问题。因此，Bill将它的ID调成4，然后安装到Fred的机器，并且将资料从 磁盘0复制到磁盘4。现在新硬盘装好了，而且看起来好像一切正常；所以，Bill认为 现在应该可以开始用它了。Bill于是到SCSI BIOS中设定SCSI ID 4为开机盘，用磁盘4 重新开机后，一切跑得很顺利。

继续用了几天后，Bill跟Fred决定要来玩点新的：该将FreeBSD升级了。Bill 将ID 0的硬盘移除(因为有问题)并且又从收藏区中拿了一块一样的硬盘来。然后他 用Fred神奇的网络FTP磁盘将新版的FreeBSD安装在这块硬盘上；安装过程没什么问 题发生。

Fred用了这新版本几天后，觉得它很适合用在工程部门…是时候将以前放在旧 系统的工作资料复制过来了。因此，Fred将ID4的SCSI硬盘(里面有放着旧系统中复制 过来的最新资料)mount起来，结果竟然发现在ID4的硬盘上，他以前的所有资料都不见 了！

资料跑到哪里去了呢？

当初Bill将ID0D硬盘的资料复制到ID4的时候，ID4即成为一个``新的副本 ''。而当他调SCSI BIOS设定ID4为开机盘，想让系统从ID4开机，这其实只是他 自己笨，因为大部分的系统可以直接调BIOS而改变开机顺序，但是FreeBSD却会把开机 顺序还原成正常的模式，因此，Fred的FreeBSD还是从原来那块ID0的硬盘开机的。所有 的资料都还在那块硬盘上，而不是在想象之中的ID4硬盘。

我们很高兴在我们发现这件事的时候那些资料都还在，我们把资料从最早的 那块ID0硬盘取出来并交还给Fred，而且Bill也从此了解o的重要…

虽然我们这里的例子使用SCSI硬盘，但是相同的概念也可以套用在IDE硬盘上。

2.5.2. 使用FDisk创建分区

Note: 如果不再做改变，数据将会写进硬盘。如果您犯了一个错误想重新开始，请选择 sysinstall 安装程序的退出按钮(exit)。或按 U 键来取消操作。如果您的操作没有结果，您总可以重新启动您 的计算机来达到您的目的。

当您在sysinstall 主菜单选择使用标准安装 后，您会看到下面的信息：

                                 Message
 In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk")
 partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote
 all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on
 the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default
 partitioning scheme followed by a (Q)uit. If you wish to allocate only
 free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the
 (C)reate command.
                                [  OK  ]

                      [ Press enter or space ]

如屏幕指示，按 Enter 键，然后您就会看到一个列表 列出所有在探测设备的时候找到的硬盘。Figure 2-16 范例显示的是有找到两个IDE硬盘的情形，这两个硬盘分别为 ad0 and ad2。

Figure 2-16. 选择要分区的硬盘

您可能正在奇怪，为什么 ad1 没有列出来？ 为什么遗失了呢？

试想，如果您有两个IDE硬盘，一个是在第一个Primary master，一个是 Secondary master，这样会性什么事呢？如果FreeBSD依照找到的顺序来为他们 命名，如 ad0 和ad1 那么就不会有什么问题。

但是，现在问题来了。如果您现在想在primary slave加装第三个硬盘， 那么这个硬盘的名称就会是 ad1,之前的 ad1 就会变成ad2。 这会造成什么问题呢？因为设备的名称（如ad1s1a） 是用来寻找文件系统的，因此您可能会发现,突然，您有些文件系统从此无法正确 地显示出来，必须修改FreeBSD配置文件（译注：/etc/fstab）才可以正确显示。

为了解决这些问题，在配置内核的时候可以叫FreeBSD直接用IDE设备所 在的位置来命名，而不是要据的到的顺序。使用这种方式的话，在secondary master 的IDE设备就 always 永远是ad2， 即使您的系统中没有ad0 或 ad1 也不受影响。

此为FreeBSD内核的默认值，这也是为什么上面的画面只显示 ad0 和 ad2的原因。 画面上这台机器的两颗硬盘是装在primary及secondary的master上面；并没有任何一个 硬盘安装在slave插槽上。

您应该选择您想安装FreeBSD的硬盘，然后按下 [ OK ]。之后 FDisk 就会开始，您会看到类似 Figure 2-17的画面。

FDisk 的显示画面分为三个部分。

第一部分是画面上最上面两行，显示的是目前所选择的硬盘的信息。包含它的 FreeBSD名称、硬盘分布以及硬盘的总容量。

第二部分显示的是目前选择的硬盘上有哪些分区，每个分区的开始及结束位置、 所占容量、FreeBSD名称、它们的描述以及类别（sub-type）。此范例显示有两个分区、 一个大的 FAT 分区，（很可能是 MS-DOS 或 Windows的 C: ）、以及一个扩展分区（在 MS-DOS 或 Windows里 面还可以包含逻辑分区）。

第三个部分显示FDisk中可用的命令。

Figure 2-17. 典型的尚未编辑前的Fdisk分区表

接下来要做的事跟您要怎么给您的硬盘分区有关。

如果您要让FreeBSD使用整个硬盘（稍后您确认要 sysinstall 继续安装后会删除所有这个硬盘上的资料），那么您就可以按 A键（Use Entire Disk ） 目前已有的分区都会被删除，取而代之的是一个小的，标示为 unused 的分区，以及一个大的FreeBSD分区。之后，请用方向键将光标移到这个 FreeBSD分区，然后按 S 以将此分区高为开机启动分区。您会看 到类似Figure 2-18的画面。注意在Flags 栏目的A记号表示这个分区是 启动 状态， 并且会由此分区开机。

如果要删除已的分区以空出空间给FreeBSD，您可以将光标移动到要删除 的分区后按 D键。然后就可按 C键,会出现 对话框请您输入要创建的分区的大小。输入合适的大小后按 Enter 键。默认情况下，这个对话框中的值为您可以给这个分区分配的可能的最大值。 它可能是最大的邻接分区或未分配的整个硬盘大小。

如果您已经建立好给FreeBSD的分区（使用像 PartitionMagic 类似的工具），那么您可以按下 C 键来建立一个新 的分区。同样的，会有对话框询问您要建立的分区的大小。

Figure 2-18. Fdisk 分区使用整个硬盘

完成后，按 Q键。您的变更会存在 sysinstall 中，但是还不会真正写入您的硬盘。

2.5.3. 安装多重引导

在这步骤您可以选择要不要安装一个多重引导管理器。一般而言，如果碰到 下列的情形，您应该选择要安装多重引导管理程序。

  • 您有一个以上的硬盘，并且FreeBSD并不是安装在第一个硬盘上。

  • 你可以在一个硬盘上，除了FreeBSD，您还有安装其它的操作系统；然后 您想要选择在开机的时候要进入哪个系统。

如果您在这台机器上只安装一个FreeBSD操作系统，并且安装在第一个硬盘， 那么选择Standard 安装就可以了。如果你已经使用 了一个第三方的多重引导程序，那么请选择 None 。

选择好配置后请按 Enter。

Figure 2-19. Sysinstall 多重引导管理程序

按下 F1键所显示的在线说明中有讨论一些操作系统共存 可能发生的问题。

2.5.4. 在其它硬盘上创建分区

如果您的系统上有一个以上的硬盘，在选择完多重引导管理程序后会再回到 选择硬盘的画面。如果您要将FreeBSD安装在多个硬盘上，那么您可以在这里选择 其它的硬盘，然后重复使用FDisk来建立分区。

Important: 如果您想让FreeBSD来管理其它的硬盘，那么两个硬盘都必须安装FreeBSD 的多重引导管理程序。

Figure 2-20. 离开选择硬盘画面

Tab 键可以在您最后选择的硬盘、 [ OK ]以及[ Cancel ] 之间进行切换。

用 Tab 键将光标移动到[ OK ]然后按 Enter 键继续安装过程。

2.5.5. 使用Disklabel 创建分区

您现在必须在刚刚建立好的分区中规划一些分区。请记住，每个分区代号是 　　　a 到 h, 并且分区 partitions b, c以及 d 为习惯使用的特殊分区，不应该随意变动。

某些应用程序可以利用一些特殊的分区而达到较好的效果，尤其是分区分散 在不同的硬盘的时候。但是，现在您是第一次安装FreeBSD，所以不需要去烦恼如 何分割你的硬盘。最重要的是，装好FreeBSD然后学习如何使用它。当您对FreeBSD 有相当程序的熟悉后，您可以随时重新安装FreeBSD，然后改变您分区的方式。

下面的范例中有四个分区--一个是磁盘交换分区，别外三个是文件系统。

Table 2-2. 第一个硬盘的分区表

分区 文件系统 大小 描述
a / 100 MB 这是一个根文件系统（root filesystem）。任何其它的文件系统都会 挂在根目录（译注：用根目录比较亲切）下面。 100 MB 对于要目录来说 是合理的大小，因为您往后并不会在这里存放太多的数据；在安装FreeBSD后会 用掉约 40 MB 的根目录空间。剩下的空间是用来存放临时文件用的，同时， 您也应该预留一些空间，因为以后的FreeBSD版本可能会需要较多的 /（根目录）空间。
b N/A 2-3 x RAM

此分区为系统磁盘交换分区（swap space）。选择正确的交换空间 大小可是一门学问唷。一般来说，交换空间的大小应该是您系统上内存（RAM） 大小的2到3倍。交换空间至少要有 64 MB 因此，如果您的电脑上的RAM比 32 MB 小，请将交换空间大小设为 64 MB。

如果您有一个以上的硬盘，您可以在每个硬盘上都配置交换分区。FreeBSD会利用 第个硬盘上的交换空间，swap速度会比较快。如果是这种情形，先算出您总共需 要的交换空间大小（如128 MB），然后除以您拥有的硬盘数目（如2块），算 出的结果就是每个硬盘上要配置的交换空间的大小。在这个例子中，第个硬盘的交 换空间为 64 MB
e /var 50 MB /var 目录会存放不同长度的文件、日志以及 其它管理用途的文件。大部分这些文件都是FreeBSD每天在运行的时候会读取或 是写入的。当这些文件放在另外的文件系统（译注：即/var）可以避免影响到 其它目录下面类似的文件存取机制。
f /usr 剩下的硬盘空间 您所有的其它的文件通常都会存在/usr 目录以及其子目录下面。

如果您要将FreeBSD安装在一个以上的硬盘，那么您必须在您配置的其它分区上 再建立分区。最简单的方式就是在第个硬盘上建立两个分区，一个是交换分区，一个 是文件系统分区。

Table 2-3. Partition Layout for Subsequent Disks

分区 文件系统 大小 描述
b N/A 见描述 之前提过，交换分区是可以跨硬盘的。但是，即使 a 分区没有使用，习惯上还是会把交换分区放在 b 分区上。
e /diskn 剩下的硬盘空间 剩下的空间是一个在的分区，最简单的做法是将之规划为 a分区而不是e分区。然而， 习惯上a分区是保留给根目录 (/) 用的。您不一定要遵守这个习惯，但是sysinstall 会，所以照着它做会使您的安装比较清爽、干净。您可以将这些文件系统挂在任何 地方，本范例建议将它们挂在/diskn 目录，n 依据每个硬盘而有所不同，但是，您喜欢的话 也可将它们挂在别的地方。

分区的配置完成后，您可以用sysinstall. 来建立它们了。您会看到下面的信息：

                                 Message
 Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk
 partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk
 space (200MB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply
 use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have
 more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by
 (A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout.

                                [  OK  ]
                          [ Press enter or space ]

按下 Enter 键开始FreeBSD分区表编辑器，称做 Disklabel。

Figure 2-21 显示您第一次执行 Disklabel的画面。画面分为三个区域。

前几行显示的是您正在编辑的硬盘以及您正在建立的slice位于哪个分区上。 （在这里， Disklabel 使用的是 分区名称 而不是 slice 名）。此画面也会显示slice还有 多少空间可以使用；亦即，有多余的空间，但是尚未指派分区。

画面中间区域显示已建立的区区，每个分区的文件系统名称、所占的大小以及 一些关于建立这些文件系统的参数选项。

下方的第三区显示在 Disklabel中可用的按键。

Figure 2-21. Sysinstall Disklabel 编辑器

Disklabel 您可以自动配置分区以及给它们预设 的大小。您可以按 A键使用此功能。你会看到类似 Figure 2-22的画面。根据您硬盘的大小，自动分配所配置 的大小不一定合适。但是没有关系，您并不一定要使用预设的大小。

Note: 从 FreeBSD 4.5开始，自动配置会给/tmp 目录一个独立分区，而不是附属在 / 之下。这样可以 避免将一些临时文件放到根目录中（译注：可能会用完根目录空间）。

Figure 2-22. Sysinstall Disklabel 编辑器-使用自动配置

如果要删除自动配置的分区，然后想自行建立，您可以使用方向键移到第一 个分区，然后按D 键删除它。重复此动作直到删除所有自动配置 的分区。

要建立第一个分区（a, 挂接点为/ -- 根目录），先确定画现上方的硬盘slice有被选取（反蓝），然后按下 C 键。接着会出现一个对话框询问您要配置的分区大小（如 Figure 2-23） 您可以输入要的block数量或是（译注：通常会）输入想使用的大小，然后后面另上 M 表示MB、G GB或是 C 表示（柱面）。

Note: 从 FreeBSD 5.X版本开始，用户可以：选择 Custom Newfs 选项来使用UFS2 (Z) ，使用Auto Defaults 来创建 labels ，并使用 Custom Newfs选项来修改它们。 或是在创建时加上-O 2规则。如果你使用了Custom Newfs 标记不要忘了添加-U标记来升级它们。

Figure 2-23. 根目录使用空间

显示在对话框中的默认大小是使用整个分区，您可以用 Backspace键删除这些数字然后按照上述方式输入您想要的 大小，如64M（Figure 2-24）， 然后按[ OK ]。

Figure 2-24. 编辑要分区大小

输入完大小后接着部您要建立的分区是文件系统还是交换空间，如 Figure 2-25所示。第一个分区是文件系统，所以 确认选择 FS后按Enter键。

Figure 2-25. 选择根分区类型

最后，因为您要建立的是一个文件系统，所以必须告诉 Disklabel 这个文件系统要挂接在什么地方，如 Figure 2-26所示。根文件系统的挂接点 /, 所以请输入 /,然后按 Enter键。

Figure 2-26. 选择根挂接点

刚刚制作好的分区会显示在画面上。你应该重复上述的动作以建立其它的 分区。当建立交换空间的时候，系统不会问您要将它挂接在哪里，因为交换空间是不用 挂在系统上的。当您在建立最后一个分区/usr的时候，您可以 直接使用默认的大小，即所有此分区剩余的空间。

您最终的 FreeBSD DiskLabel 编辑器画面会类似 Figure 2-27, 实际数字按您的选择而有所不同。按下 Q 键完成分区的建立。

Figure 2-27. Sysinstall Disklabel 编辑器

2.6. 选择要安装的软件包

2.6.1. 选择要安装的软件包

这些软件的选择跟您的硬盘大小有绝对的关系。预先准备好的软件包从最 小安装到完整安装都有。 UNIX 或FreeBSD的新手通常直接选择其中一个设定 好的软件包就可以了。自订软件比较适合有经验的使用者使用。

按下F1 可以参考有关软件包的更多选项信息，以及 它们都包含了哪些软件。当看完辅助说明可以按 Enter 回到软件包选择画面。

如果您想要使用图形界面，您必须选择软件包名称开头是 X 的软件包。 XFree86 的配置以及选择其默认桌面管理 员必须等到安装完毕后再来做。

XFree86 的版本依赖于您正在安装的FreeBSD 的版本。如果您安装的是FreeBSD 4.6以前的版本，那么默认的情况下安装 XFree86 3.X 版本。如果您安装的 FreeBSD 4.6 以后的版本，那么默认情况下安装XFree86 4.X 版本。

您应该到XFree86 网站看看您的显卡有没有被您安装的FreeBSD所支持。您也可以选择不安装 图形界面，等安装完成后，再通过ports collection来安装和配置适合版本 的XFree86 。

如果您以后要自己编译内核，那么请您选择包含原始代码的软件包。如果您 想知道为什么要建立自订的内核或是如何建立自订的内核，请参考 Chapter 9。

很明显，安装容量最大的当然就是全部安装啦。如果您的硬盘够大，您 可以选择All （如图 Figure 2-28 ）然后按下 Enter。 如果您的硬盘空间有问题，那么请选择适合您情部的软件包。在安装完毕后， 您还是可以安装其它的软件。

Figure 2-28. 选择软件包

2.6.2. 安装ports软件包

当选择完您想要安装的部分后，接着会询问您要不要安装FreeBSD Ports 软件包；Ports软件包可以让您简单方便地安装软件包。Ports本身并不包含编辑 软件所需要的程序源代码，而是一个包含自动下载、编辑以及安装的文档集合。 Chapter 4 一章讨论如何使用Ports.

安装程序并不会检查您是否有足够的硬盘空间来放ports,所以，如果要安装 ports软件所，请先确定您有足够的硬盘空间。 FreeBSD 5.2.1版本 FreeBSD Ports Collection 大约占用 300 MB 大小的硬盘空间。您要为 这些版本设置大一点的值来安装它们。

                         User Confirmation Requested
 Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection?

 This will give you ready access to over 10,000 ported software packages,
 at a cost of around 300 MB of disk space when "clean" and possibly much
 more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded
 (unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution
 available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less
 of a problem).

 The ports collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having
 on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option.

 For more information on the ports collection & the latest ports,
 visit:
     http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports

                              [ Yes ]     No

选择[ Yes ] 以安装Ports；或选择 [ No ] 以跳过此步骤。选好后按下 Enter 继续。之后会将您所选择的安装软件包再 显示一次。

Figure 2-29. 确认您要安装的软件包

如果对您的选择感到满意，请选择Exit 退出，确保[ OK ] 被高亮显示，然后按Enter 继续。

2.7. 选择您要使用的安装介质

如果要从 CDROM 或 DVD安装，使用方向键将光标移到 Install from a FreeBSD CD/DVD。确认 [ OK ] 被选取，然后按 Enter 开始安装程序。

如果要使用其它的方式安装，请选择适当的安装介质然后按照屏幕指示 进行安装。

按 F1 可以显示安装介质的在线说明。按一下 Enter 可返回选择安装介质画面。

Figure 2-30. 选择安装介质

FTP安装模式: 使用FTP安装，有三种方式：主动式（active）FTP、被动式（passive）FTP 或是透过HTTP代理服务器。

主动式FTP： 从FTP服务器安装

这个选项将会使所有的FTP传输使用 ``Active''模式。 这将无法通过防火墙，但是可以使用在那些比较早期，不支持被动模式的FTP站。 如果您的连接在使用被动（默认值）模式卡住了，请换主动模式看看！

被动模式FTP： 通过防火墙从FTP服务器安装

此选项会让 sysinstall 使用 ``Passive''模式来安装。这使得使用者可以穿过 不允许用非固定TCP PORTS连入的防火墙。

FTP 透过 HTTP 代理服务器： 透过HTTP代理服务器，由 FTP服务器安装

此选项会让 sysinstall 通过HTTP协议 （像浏览器一样）连到proxy服务器。proxy服务器会解释送出的请求， 然后通知FTP服务器。因为通过HTTP协议，所以可以穿过防火墙。 要用这种方式，您必须指定proxy服务器的地址。

对于一个proxy FTP服务器而言，通常在使用者登入名称中加入您要登入的 服务器的用户名，加在``@'' 符号后面。然后 proxy server 就会 ``假装''成一个真的服务器。例如，假设您要从 ftp.FreeBSD.org安装，通过 proxy FTP server foo.example.com，使用1024端口。

在这种情况下，您可以到 options 菜单，将 FTP username设为 ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org，密码设为您的电子邮件地址。 安装介质部分，指定FTP（或是被动式FTP，如果proxy server支持的话）以及URL为 ftp://foo.example.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD。

因为ftp.FreeBSD.org的 /pub/FreeBSD 目录会被抓取到 foo.example.com之下，您就可以从 from 这台 机器（会从 ftp.FreeBSD.org 抓取文件）安装。

2.8. 安装确认

到此为止，可以开始进行安装了，这也是您避免更动到您的硬盘的最后机会。

                       User Confirmation Requested
 Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation?

 If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
 STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!

 We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!

                             [ Yes ]    No

选择 [ Yes ] 然后按下 Enter 确认安装

安装所需的时间会根据您所选择的软件、安装介质以及您电脑的速度而有所不同。 在安装的过程中会有一些信息来显示目前蝗进度。

当您看到下面的信息表示已经安装完成了：

                               Message

Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system.

We will now move on to the final configuration questions.
For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No.

If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may
do so by typing: /stand/sysinstall .

                                 [ OK ]

                      [  Press enter to continue  ]

按下 Enter 以进行安装后的配置。

选择 [ No ] 然后按 Enter 会取消安装，不会对您的系统造成更动。您会看到下面的信息：

                                Message
Installation complete with some errors.  You may wish to scroll
through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature.
You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the
installation menus to retry whichever operations have failed.

                                 [ OK ]

产生这个信息是因为什么东西也没有安装，按下 Enter 后会离开安装程序回到主安装界面。从主安装界面可以退出安装程序。

2.9. 安装后的配置

如果安装成功，您将可以对一些基本的项目作安装后初步的配置。任何一项 配置在重新开机前都可以重新配置，系统会使用最后一次的配置值。重新开机后 如果再做配置，可以执行/stand/sysinstall 命令然后选择 Configure选项。

2.9.1. 配置网卡

如果您之前配置用 PPP 通过 FTP 安装，那么这个画面将不会出现；正像所说 的那样，你可以稍后再做配置。

如果想更多的了解网卡或将FreeBSD配置为网关或路由器，请参考 Advanced Networking 的相关文章。

                      User Confirmation Requested
   Would you like to configure any Ethernet or SLIP/PPP network devices?

                             [ Yes ]   No

如果要配置网卡，请选择 [ Yes ] 然后按 Enter。 否则请选择 [ No ] 继续。

Figure 2-31. 选择网卡设备

用方向键选择您要配置的网卡接口，然后按Enter。

                      User Confirmation Requested
       Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface?

                              Yes   [ No ]

目录私人区域网络IP协议IPv4已经足够，所以选择 [ No ]然后按 Enter。

如果想试试新的IP通信协议 IPv6 ，使用 RA 服务，请选择[ Yes ] 然后按 Enter。 它将会花费几秒钟去搜寻RA服务器。

                             User Confirmation Requested
        Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface?

                              Yes   [ No ]

如果您不需要 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol　动态主机配置协议) ，选择 [ No ] 然后按Enter。

选择[ Yes ] 会执行dhclient， 如果成功，它会自动将网络配置信息填上。更多的信息请参考 Section 19.10 。

下面的网络配置显示了怎样把以太网设备配置成区域网络网关的角色。

Figure 2-32. 配置 ed0接口

使用Tab 键可以在各个栏目之间进行切换，请输入适当 的信息：

Host（机器名称）

完整的机器名称，例如本例中的 k6-2.example.com 。

Domain（域名）

您机器所在的域名称，如本例的 example.com

IPv4 Gateway（IPv4网关）

输入将数据包传送到远端网络的机器IP地址。只有当机器是网络上的 一个接点时才要输入。如果这台机器要作为您局域网的网关， 请将此处设为空白。IPv4网关，也被称作默认网关或 默认路由器。

域名服务器

本地网络中的域名服务器的IP地址。本例中假设机器所在的网络中 没有域名服务器，所以填入的是ISP提供的域名服务器地址 （208.163.10.2。）

IPv4 地址

本机所使用的IP地址。本例为 192.168.0.1。

子网掩码

本范例中的IP地址属于一个C类地址 （192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255）。默认的子网掩码为 （255.255.255.0）。

ifconfig 额外参数设定

任何ifconfig命令跟网卡接口有关的参数。 本范例中没有。

使用 Tab 键选择 [ OK ]然后按 Enter键。

                      User Confirmation Requested
        Would you like to Bring Up the ed0 interface right now?

                             [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 然后按 Enter 将会将机器的网卡转为启用状态。机器下次启动 的时候即可实用。

2.9.2. 配置网关

                       User Confirmation Requested
       Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway?

                              [ Yes ]    No

如果这台机器要作为本地网络和其它机器之间传送数据包的网关，请选择 [ Yes ] 然后按 Enter。 如果这台机器只是网络上的一个节点主，请选择 [ No ] 并按Enter 继续。

2.9.3. 配置网络服务

                      User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides?

                               Yes   [ No ]

如果选择 [ No ] ，许多网络服务，如 telnetd 将不会启用。这表示远端用户将无法 telnet 进入这台机器。本机器上的用户还是可以 telnet到远端机器的。

这些服务可以在安装完成后修改/etc/inetd.conf 配置文件来启用它们。请参阅 Section 19.14.1 以获得更多的信息。

如果您想现在就配置这些网络服务，请选择[ Yes ] ， 然后会看到下面的信息：

                      User Confirmation Requested
The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet
services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd.  Enabling
these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing
the exposure of your system.

With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd?

                             [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 继续。

                      User Confirmation Requested
inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine
which of its Internet services will be available.  The default FreeBSD
inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be
specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will
function, even once inetd(8) is enabled.  Note that services for
IPv6 must be separately enabled from IPv4 services.

Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to
use the current settings.

                             [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 将允许您添加网络服务 （将相应网络服务每行开头的#除掉即呆。

Figure 2-33. 编辑 inetd.conf配置文件

在加入您想启用的服务后，按下 Esc键会出现一个 对话框可以让您离开以及保存修改。

2.9.4. 匿名 FTP

                      User Confirmation Requested
 Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine?

                              Yes    [ No ]

2.9.4.1. 不允许匿名 FTP访问

选择默认的 [ No ] 并按下 Enter 键将仍然可以让在这台机器上有账号的用户访问 FTP。

2.9.4.2. 允许匿名 FTP访问

如果您选择允许匿名FTP存取，那么网络中任何人都可以使用FTP来访问您 的机器。在启用匿名访问之前应该考虑网络的安全问题。如果要知道更多有关网络 安全的信息，请参阅 Chapter 10。

要启用FTP匿名访问，用方向键选择 [ Yes ] 然后按 Enter键。您会看到下面（或类似）的画面：

Figure 2-34. 默认的匿名FTP配置

按 F1 键可以查看在线帮助文档：

This screen allows you to configure the anonymous FTP user.

The following configuration values are editable:

UID:     The user ID you wish to assign to the anonymous FTP user.
         All files uploaded will be owned by this ID.

Group:   Which group you wish the anonymous FTP user to be in.

Comment: String describing this user in /etc/passwd


FTP Root Directory:

        Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept.

Upload subdirectory:

        Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go.

默认的FTP根目录将放在 /var目录下。如果您 的/var目录空间不足以应付您的FTP需求，您可以将FTP的根目录改为 /usr 目录下的 /usr/ftp 目录。

当您对一切配置都满意后，请按 Enter 键继续。

                          User Confirmation Requested
         Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users?

                              [ Yes ]    No

如果您选择 [ Yes ] 并按下 Enter键，系统会自动打开文本编辑器让您编辑FTP的欢迎信息。

Figure 2-35. 编辑FTP欢迎信息

此文本编辑器叫做 ee。按照指示修改信息文本或是 稍后再用您喜爱的文本编辑器来修改。请记住画面下方显示的文件位置。

按 Esc 将弹出一个默认为 a) leave editor的对话框。按 Enter 退出并继续。再次按 Enter 将保存修改。

2.9.5. 配置网络文件系统

网络文件系统 (NFS) 可以让您可以在网络上共享您的文件。一台机器可以 配置成NFS服务器、客户端或两者并存。请参考 Section 19.6 以获得更多的信息。

2.9.5.1. NFS 服务器

                       User Confirmation Requested
 Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server?

                              Yes    [ No ]

如果您不想安装网络文件系统，请选择 [ No ] 然后按 Enter键。

如果您选择 [ Yes ] 将会出现一个对话框提醒您 必须先建立一个 exports 文件。

                               Message
Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an
/etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of
access to your local filesystems.
Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports
                               [ OK ]

按 Enter 键继续。系统会启动文本编辑器让您编辑 exports 文件。

Figure 2-36. 编辑 exports文件

按照指示加入真实输出的文件目录或是稍后用您喜爱的编辑器自行编辑。 请记下画面下方显示的文件名称及位置。

按下 Esc 键会出现一具对话框，默认选项是 a) leave editor。按下 Enter 离开并继续。

2.9.5.2. NFS 客户端

NFS 客户端允许您的机器访问NFS服务器。

                       User Confirmation Requested
 Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client?

                              Yes   [ No ]

按照您的需要，选择 [ Yes ] 或 [ No ] 然后按 Enter。

2.9.6. 安全配置

``安全配置'' 中包含了一些可以通过启用或停用某些程序 来达到某些程序的安全性配置。安全配置越严格，则默认启动的程序就越少。 基本的原则是：除非必要，否则不要执行一些可有有无的程序。

请注意，安全文件的配置都是默认值，在安装完成后您可以随时通过 编辑 /etc/rc.conf配置文件来改变这些配置。 如果想得到更多的信息请参阅 rc.conf(5) 手册。

下表说明每一种安全等级的意义。每列所代表的是安全等级，每行所 代表的是程序或功能是启用还是停用。

Table 2-4. 可能的安全等级

  极/高度安全 中度安全
sendmail(8) 否 是
sshd(8) 否 是
portmap(8) 否 不一定 [a]
NFS server 否 是
securelevel(8) 是 [b] 否
Notes:
a. 如果之前安装时配置机器为NFS客户端或服务器，则会启用些 项目。
b. 如果您选择的安全等级配置 securelevel 为 ``极度或高度'' 或 ``High''，请阅读init(8)手册并特别注意有关安全 等级意义的部分；否则稍后您可能会过到很大的困难！
 
                       User Confirmation Requested
 Do you want to select a default security profile for this host (select
 No for "medium" security)?

                            [ Yes ]    No

选择 [ No ] 并按 Enter 会将安全等级高为中度安全。

选择 [ Yes ]并按 Enter将允许您选择不同程序的安全等级。

Figure 2-37. 选择安全等级

按 F1 显示在线帮助；按Enter 键可以回到选择画面。

如果您没有什么特殊的等级需求，请用方向键选择 中度， 确定选择了 [ OK ] 然后按Enter。

依据您选择的安全等级，会显示相对应的确认信息。

                                 Message

Moderate security settings have been selected.

Sendmail and SSHd have been enabled, securelevels are
disabled, and NFS server setting have been left intact.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a standard set of out-of-box defaults to start with.

To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf

                                  [OK]

                                 Message

Extreme security settings have been selected.

Sendmail, SSHd, and NFS services have been disabled, and
securelevels have been enabled.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a more secure set of out-of-box defaults to start with.

To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf

                                  [OK]

按下 Enter 继续安装后面的配置。

Warning安全等级并非万能药！即使您选择极度安全，您还是必须时常阅读 邮件列表 中有关安全的部分、使用有效的密码以及平常就注意安全问题。这里只是稍为配置一下 常用的安全等级而已。

2.9.7. 配置系统终端

系统提供了几个选项可以让您配置终端的表现方式。

                      User Confirmation Requested
       Would you like to customize your system console settings?

                              [ Yes ]  No

要查阅及配置这些选项，请选择[ Yes ] 并按Enter。

Figure 2-38. 系统终端配置选项

最常用的选项就是屏幕保护程序了。使用方向键将光标移动到 Saver 然后按Enter。

Figure 2-39. 屏幕保护程序选项

选择您想使用的屏幕保护程序，然后按 Enter。 之后回到系统终端配置画面。

默认开启屏幕保护程序的时间是300秒。如果要更改此时间，请再次选择 Saver 。然后选择 Timeout 并按 Enter键。系统会弹出一个对话框如下：

Figure 2-40. 屏幕保护时间设置

您可以直接改变这个值，然后选 [ OK ]并按 Enter 键回到系统终端配置画面。

Figure 2-41. 退出系统终端配置

选择 Exit 然后按下 Enter 键会回到安装后的配置画面。

2.9.8. 配置时区

配置您机器的时区可以让系统自动校正任何区域时间的变更并且在执行 一些跟时区相关的程序时不会出错。

例子中假设此台机器位于美国东部的时区。请参考您所在的地理位置来配置。

                      User Confirmation Requested
          Would you like to set this machine's time zone now?

                            [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 并按下 Enter键以配置时区。

                       User Confirmation Requested
 Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time
 or you don't know, please choose NO here!

                              Yes   [ No ]

这里按照您机器时间的配置，选择 [ Yes ] 或 [ No ] 然后按 Enter。

Figure 2-42. 选择您所处的地理区域

请选择适当的区域然后按 Enter。

Figure 2-43. 选择您所在的国家

选择您所在的国家然后按 Enter。

Figure 2-44. 选择您所在的时区

选择您所在的时区然后按 Enter。

                            Confirmation
            Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable?

                            [ Yes ]   No

检查一下时区的缩写是否正确，如果没错，请按 Enter 返回系统安装后的配置画面。

2.9.9. Linux 兼容性

                      User Confirmation Requested
          Would you like to enable Linux binary compatibility?

                            [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 并按下Enter 键，将允许您在FreeBSD中执行Linux的软件。安装程序会安装一些为了跟Linux 兼容的软件包。

如果您是通过FTP安装，那么您必须连到网络上。有时候FTP站并不会包含 所有的安装软件包（例如Linux兼容软件包）；不过，稍后您还可以再安装这个 项目。

2.9.10. 配置鼠标

此选项可以让您在终端上使用三键鼠标剪贴文字。如果您用的鼠标是两个 按钮，请参考手册 moused(8)；以取得有关模拟三键鼠标的信息。范例中 使用的鼠标不是USB接口。（例如ps/2或com接口的鼠标）：

                      User Confirmation Requested
         Does this system have a non-USB mouse attached to it?

                            [ Yes ]    No

如果您使用的不是USB鼠标，请选择 [ Yes ] ； 否则请选择[ No ] 。然后按Enter。

Figure 2-45. 选择鼠标类型

使用方向键选择 Type 然后按 Enter。

Figure 2-46. 设置鼠标协议

在这个例子中使用的类型是ps/2鼠标，所以可以使用默认的 Auto（自动） 。 您可以用方向键选择合适的项目， 确定选择了 [ OK ] 后按 Enter 键离开此画面。

Figure 2-47. 配置鼠标端口

选择 Port 然后按 Enter。

Figure 2-48. 配置鼠标端口

假设这台机器用的是ps/2鼠标，您可以采用默认的 PS/2 选项。请选择适当的项目然后按 Enter。

Figure 2-49. 启动鼠标服务进程

选择Enable然后按 Enter 来启动和测试鼠标。

Figure 2-50. 测试鼠标功能

鼠标指针可以在屏幕上移动，指明鼠标服务已经正常启用。那么请选择 Yes 按 Enter键。否则鼠标没 有配置成功 -- 选择 No 并尝试不同的配置 选项。

选择 Exit 并按 and press Enter 退回到系统安装完成后的配置画面。

2.9.11. 配置额外的网络服务

配置网络服务总是让那些新手敬畏，因为他们缺乏在这个领域应有的基础知识。 网络，包括因特网有许多关于现代操作系统包括 FreeBSD;的评论文章。这些文章对于 理解FreeBSD拥有的广泛的网络性能是非常有帮助的。在安装这些服务的过程中也能让 用户理解它们可用的各种服务。

网络服务是一些可以使在网络的任何人来访问你提供的服务的程序。有许多 努力想使这些程序不会有任何的 ``伤害''。不幸的是，这些程序并 不是十全十美的，黑客可能会撑握程序中的一些露洞来进行功击。只启用一些你 熟悉的和需要的服务十分重要。如果你存在一些疑虑或没有启用这些服务的必要 那么最好不要使用这些服务。你可以事后通过运行 sysinstall 程序或使用 /etc/rc.conf 配置文件来启用它们。

选择 ``Networking'' 选项将下显示类似下面的一个菜单：

Figure 2-51. Network Configuration Upper-level

第一个选项－是在配置网络设备一节中涉及的接口，在此可以被忽略。

选择 AMD 选项，添加 BSD 对自动挂接程序的支持。这个程序和NFS 协议一起使用 不需要经过特别的设置就可以自动挂接远程文件系统。

下一行是 AMD 的参数选项。当你选择后，会弹出一个 子菜单来让你选择 AMD 的参数。菜单中包含一系列的选项：

-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map

-a 选项用来设置默认的挂接位置，这里使用的是 /.amd_mnt目录。 -l 指定默认的 日志 文件；但是，当 syslogd 被指定用来接收所有的日志时，那么它们会被送到 系统日志程序。/host 被用来挂接远程 主机输出的一个文件系统，例子中/net 目录被用来挂接从IP输出的一个文件系统。 /etc/amd.map 文件定义了 AMD 的默认 输出选项。

匿名 FTP 允许匿名FTP 访问。 选中这个选项，可以使这台机器成为一台匿名 FTP 服务器。 要注意启用这个选项的安全风险。其它的菜单将说明一些安全问题和更深入的配置。

Gateway 配置菜单可以使本机器成为一台以前我们提到过 的网关。如果你在安装过程中偶尔选中了它，也可以在这里选中这个选项来取消它。

Inetd 选项用来配置或完全禁止我们在上面讨论的 inetd(8) 守护程序。

Mail 可以用来配置系统默认的 MTA 或邮件传输代理。选择这个选项将了出现下面的菜单：

Figure 2-52. 选择默认的 MTA

这里给你提供了一个安装默认MTA 的机会。 MTA 用来投递本系统上用户邮件到因特网去。

选择 Sendmail 将会安装 FreeBSD默认的 流行的的 Sendmail 服务程序。 Sendmail local 选项用来设置Sendmail 默认的MTA，也可以禁止它从Internet接收邮件的能力。 还有其它的一些选项如： Postfix 和 Exim 都类似于 Sendmail的角色。它们两者也可以投递邮件； 有些用户更喜欢选择使用Sendmail、 MTA二者之一。

选择 MTA或不选择它之后，网络配置菜单的下一 个选项是 NFS 客房端程序。

NFS 客房端可以使系统同一个NFS 服务器进行通信。 NFS 服务器通过NFS 协议可以使其它在网络上的机器来访问自己的文件系统。如果这台机器要作为一台 独立的服务器，这个选项可以保留不选。下面可能还有更多的配置，关于客户端和 服务器的配置请参阅Section 19.6 一节。

接下来的 NFS 服务器选项，可以允许你把系统设备成 为一台NFS 服务器。这需要更多的信息来启动远程过程调 用（ RPC）服务。 RPC用来连接调 用两台机器上的程序。

下一项是 Ntpdate 选项，处理时间同步。当选择它后， 会出现一个像下面所似的菜单：

Figure 2-53. Ntpdate 配置

从这个菜单选择一个离你最近的服务器。在你连接这台服务器时，除去 连接时的反应时间，时间同步最精确的服务器。

下一个选项是 PCNFSD 。这个选项将从安装包中 安装net/pcnfsd 软件。这个程序 能够为不能提供它们自己，例如微软的DOS操作系统提供 NFS 的认证服务。

滚屏到下一页看一下其它选项：

Figure 2-54. Network Configuration Lower-level

rpcbind(8)，rpc.statd(8)和rpc.lockd(8) 程序全都可以用来提供远程过程调用 (RPC)服务。 rpcbind.8 程序管理NFS 服务器和客户端的通信，使NFS 执行正确的操作。 rpc.statd程序可以 和其它主机上rpc.statd 程序提供的状态监视进行交互。状态报告通常被保存在 /var/db/statd.status 文件里。最后的一项是 rpc.lockd选项，当选中这时，将提供文件锁定服务。 它通常被用业通过rpc.statd来监视主机请求锁定什么文件和 怎样频繁的访问它们。这最后的两项调试功能，可以需要 NFS 服务器和客户端的正常操作。

下一个项目是Routed，这是一个路由程序。 routed(8) 程序管理网络路由表，发现多播路由，并且支持在网络上 与它物理相连的主机来拷贝它的路由表的请求。它被广泛的应用在本地 网络中并扮演关网关的角色。（看 icmp(4)和udp(4) 手册页） 当选择它后，一个子菜单会来询问你这个程序的默认位置。默认的位置已经 被定义过，你可以选择 Enter 键，你也可以按下其它的键。 这时会出来另一个菜单来询问你传递给 routed程序的参数。 默认的是 -q 参数。

接下来是 Rwhod 选项，选中它会启用 rwhod(8) 程序 在系统初时化的时候。 rwhod程序通过网络周期性的广播系统 信息或以``客户''的身份来收集这些信息。更多的信息可以查看 ruptime(1) 和rwho(1) 手册页。

接下来的最后一个选项是sshd(8) 程序。它可以通过使用 OpenSSH来提供安全的shell服务，我们推荐通过 使用它来使用 telnet 和FTP 服务。 sshd服务通过使用加密技术来创建从一台机器到另一台机 器的安全连接。

最后有一个 TCP 扩展选项。这可以用来扩展在 RFC 1323 和RFC 1644 里定义的TCP 功能。当许多主机以高速连接本机时，可 能会引起某些连接被丢弃。我们不推荐使用这个选项，但是当使用独立的主机 时可以从它上面得到一些好处。

现在你已经配置完成了网络服务，你可以滚动屏幕到顶部选择 Exit 项，退出进入下一个配置部分。

2.9.12. 配置 X Server

为了使用图形化用户界面，例如KDE, GNOME,或其它窗口管理程序，您必须 配置 X server 。

Note: 为了以非root用户运行 XFree86 您必须安装 x11/wrapper 软件。在FreeBSD 4.7及以上 版本是默认安装的，但以前的版本要手工安装到系统中。

要知道您的显卡是否被支持，请参考 XFree86 网站。

                      User Confirmation Requested
        Would you like to configure your X server at this time?

                            [ Yes ]   No

Warning您必须知道您的显示器及显卡的制造规格。如果配置有误，有可能造成设备 损毁。如果您手边没有这样的信息，请选择 [ No ] 并且等到您有这些信息后再执行 /stand/sysinstall程序，选择 Configure 下的 XFree86来配置。这时如果配置X-server 不正确的话系统会出现锁死。建议在安装完毕后再配置X-server。

如果您有显卡和显示器的信息，请选择 [ Yes ] 并 Enter 来配置 X-server。

Figure 2-55. 选择配置方法菜单

您可以通过许多方法来配置 X server。在认真读了所有的说明后， 请使用方向键来选择一种配置方式，并按Enter。 键确认。

xf86cfg 和 xf86cfg -textmode 配置方法可能会使屏幕黑屏一会 过一会即会启动。要有耐心。

下面将介绍xf86config 配置工具。 根据系统硬件的不同，下面的信息可能会适当的发生变动：

                                Message
 You have configured and been running the mouse daemon.
 Choose "/dev/sysmouse" as the mouse port and "SysMouse" or
 "MouseSystems" as the mouse protocol in the X configuration utility.

                                 [ OK ]

                      [ Press enter to continue ]

这个信息指明，前面配置的鼠标驱动程序被检测到。按 Enter 键继续。

启动 xf86config 后会显示一个简单的说明：

This program will create a basic XF86Config file, based on menu selections you
make.

The XF86Config file usually resides in /usr/X11R6/etc/X11 or /etc/X11. A sample
XF86Config file is supplied with XFree86; it is configured for a standard
VGA card and monitor with 640x480 resolution. This program will ask for a
pathname when it is ready to write the file.

You can either take the sample XF86Config as a base and edit it for your
configuration, or let this program produce a base XF86Config file for your
configuration and fine-tune it.

Before continuing with this program, make sure you know what video card
you have, and preferably also the chipset it uses and the amount of video
memory on your video card. SuperProbe may be able to help with this.

Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.

按 Enter 将启动鼠标配置。请按照指示选择 ``Mouse Systems'' 作为鼠标协议， /dev/sysmouse 作为鼠标端口。下面的例子 向你说明的是使用一个 PS/2 鼠标：

First specify a mouse protocol type. Choose one from the following list:

 1.  Microsoft compatible (2-button protocol)
 2.  Mouse Systems (3-button protocol) & FreeBSD moused protocol
 3.  Bus Mouse
 4.  PS/2 Mouse
 5.  Logitech Mouse (serial, old type, Logitech protocol)
 6.  Logitech MouseMan (Microsoft compatible)
 7.  MM Series
 8.  MM HitTablet
 9.  Microsoft IntelliMouse

If you have a two-button mouse, it is most likely of type 1, and if you have
a three-button mouse, it can probably support both protocol 1 and 2. There are
two main varieties of the latter type: mice with a switch to select the
protocol, and mice that default to 1 and require a button to be held at
boot-time to select protocol 2. Some mice can be convinced to do 2 by sending
a special sequence to the serial port (see the ClearDTR/ClearRTS options).

Enter a protocol number: 2

You have selected a Mouse Systems protocol mouse. If your mouse is normally
in Microsoft-compatible mode, enabling the ClearDTR and ClearRTS options
may cause it to switch to Mouse Systems mode when the server starts.

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to enable ClearDTR and ClearRTS? n

You have selected a three-button mouse protocol. It is recommended that you
do not enable Emulate3Buttons, unless the third button doesn't work.

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to enable Emulate3Buttons? y

Now give the full device name that the mouse is connected to, for example
/dev/tty00. Just pressing enter will use the default, /dev/mouse.
On FreeBSD, the default is /dev/sysmouse.

Mouse device: /dev/sysmouse

下一个要配置的项目是键盘。在例子中使用的键盘一般是101-key 。你可以选择不 同的键盘类型或直接按 Enter 键来使用默认配置。

Please select one of the following keyboard types that is the better
description of your keyboard. If nothing really matches,
choose 1 (Generic 101-key PC)

  1  Generic 101-key PC
  2  Generic 102-key (Intl) PC
  3  Generic 104-key PC
  4  Generic 105-key (Intl) PC
  5  Dell 101-key PC
  6  Everex STEPnote
  7  Keytronic FlexPro
  8  Microsoft Natural
  9  Northgate OmniKey 101
 10  Winbook Model XP5
 11  Japanese 106-key
 12  PC-98xx Series
 13  Brazilian ABNT2
 14  HP Internet
 15  Logitech iTouch
 16  Logitech Cordless Desktop Pro
 17  Logitech Internet Keyboard
 18  Logitech Internet Navigator Keyboard
 19  Compaq Internet
 20  Microsoft Natural Pro
 21  Genius Comfy KB-16M
 22  IBM Rapid Access
 23  IBM Rapid Access II
 24  Chicony Internet Keyboard
 25  Dell Internet Keyboard

Enter a number to choose the keyboard.

1


Please select the layout corresponding to your keyboard


  1  U.S. English
  2  U.S. English w/ ISO9995-3
  3  U.S. English w/ deadkeys
  4  Albanian
  5  Arabic
  6  Armenian
  7  Azerbaidjani
  8  Belarusian
  9  Belgian
 10  Bengali
 11  Brazilian
 12  Bulgarian
 13  Burmese
 14  Canadian
 15  Croatian
 16  Czech
 17  Czech (qwerty)
 18  Danish

Enter a number to choose the country.
Press enter for the next page

1


Please enter a variant name for 'us' layout. Or just press enter
for default variant

us


Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to select additional XKB options (group switcher,
group indicator, etc.)? n

接下来，我们要配置显示器。不要超过你显示器的刷新频率，这样可以 会损坏你的显示器。如果你有疑问，请参考其它信息后再做配置。

Now we want to set the specifications of the monitor. The two critical
parameters are the vertical refresh rate, which is the rate at which the
whole screen is refreshed, and most importantly the horizontal sync rate,
which is the rate at which scanlines are displayed.

The valid range for horizontal sync and vertical sync should be documented
in the manual of your monitor. If in doubt, check the monitor database
/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors to see if your monitor is there.

Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.



You must indicate the horizontal sync range of your monitor. You can either
select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry-
standard monitor types, or give a specific range.

It is VERY IMPORTANT that you do not specify a monitor type with a horizontal
sync range that is beyond the capabilities of your monitor. If in doubt,
choose a conservative setting.

    hsync in kHz; monitor type with characteristic modes
 1  31.5; Standard VGA, 640x480 @ 60 Hz
 2  31.5 - 35.1; Super VGA, 800x600 @ 56 Hz
 3  31.5, 35.5; 8514 Compatible, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced (no 800x600)
 4  31.5, 35.15, 35.5; Super VGA, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced, 800x600 @ 56 Hz
 5  31.5 - 37.9; Extended Super VGA, 800x600 @ 60 Hz, 640x480 @ 72 Hz
 6  31.5 - 48.5; Non-Interlaced SVGA, 1024x768 @ 60 Hz, 800x600 @ 72 Hz
 7  31.5 - 57.0; High Frequency SVGA, 1024x768 @ 70 Hz
 8  31.5 - 64.3; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 60 Hz
 9  31.5 - 79.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 74 Hz
10  31.5 - 82.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 76 Hz
11  Enter your own horizontal sync range

Enter your choice (1-11): 6

You must indicate the vertical sync range of your monitor. You can either
select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry-
standard monitor types, or give a specific range. For interlaced modes,
the number that counts is the high one (e.g. 87 Hz rather than 43 Hz).

 1  50-70
 2  50-90
 3  50-100
 4  40-150
 5  Enter your own vertical sync range

Enter your choice: 2

You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an
identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill
in default names.

The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed.
Enter an identifier for your monitor definition: Hitachi

下一个配置是从显卡的驱动列表里选择一个显卡驱动程序。如果忽略 当前列表中的选项，请直接按Enter 下一屏将会出现在屏幕上， 会显示下面的信息：

Now we must configure video card specific settings. At this point you can
choose to make a selection out of a database of video card definitions.
Because there can be variation in Ramdacs and clock generators even
between cards of the same model, it is not sensible to blindly copy
the settings (e.g. a Device section). For this reason, after you make a
selection, you will still be asked about the components of the card, with
the settings from the chosen database entry presented as a strong hint.

The database entries include information about the chipset, what driver to
run, the Ramdac and ClockChip, and comments that will be included in the
Device section. However, a lot of definitions only hint about what driver
to run (based on the chipset the card uses) and are untested.

If you can't find your card in the database, there's nothing to worry about.
You should only choose a database entry that is exactly the same model as
your card; choosing one that looks similar is just a bad idea (e.g. a
GemStone Snail 64 may be as different from a GemStone Snail 64+ in terms of
hardware as can be).

Do you want to look at the card database? y



288  Matrox Millennium G200 8MB                        mgag200
289  Matrox Millennium G200 SD 16MB                    mgag200
290  Matrox Millennium G200 SD 4MB                     mgag200
291  Matrox Millennium G200 SD 8MB                     mgag200
292  Matrox Millennium G400                            mgag400
293  Matrox Millennium II 16MB                         mga2164w
294  Matrox Millennium II 4MB                          mga2164w
295  Matrox Millennium II 8MB                          mga2164w
296  Matrox Mystique                                   mga1064sg
297  Matrox Mystique G200 16MB                         mgag200
298  Matrox Mystique G200 4MB                          mgag200
299  Matrox Mystique G200 8MB                          mgag200
300  Matrox Productiva G100 4MB                        mgag100
301  Matrox Productiva G100 8MB                        mgag100
302  MediaGX                                           mediagx
303  MediaVision Proaxcel 128                          ET6000
304  Mirage Z-128                                      ET6000
305  Miro CRYSTAL VRX                                  Verite 1000

Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition.
Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration.

288

Your selected card definition:

Identifier: Matrox Millennium G200 8MB
Chipset:    mgag200
Driver:     mga
Do NOT probe clocks or use any Clocks line.

Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.



Now you must give information about your video card. This will be used for
the "Device" section of your video card in XF86Config.

You must indicate how much video memory you have. It is probably a good
idea to use the same approximate amount as that detected by the server you
intend to use. If you encounter problems that are due to the used server
not supporting the amount memory you have (e.g. ATI Mach64 is limited to
1024K with the SVGA server), specify the maximum amount supported by the
server.

How much video memory do you have on your video card:

 1  256K
 2  512K
 3  1024K
 4  2048K
 5  4096K
 6  Other

Enter your choice: 6

Amount of video memory in Kbytes: 8192

You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an
identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill
in default names (possibly from a card definition).

Your card definition is Matrox Millennium G200 8MB.

The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed.
Enter an identifier for your video card definition:

接下来，设置显卡的分辨率。典型的使用范围是 640x480, 800x600, 和 1024x768，这些显卡的功能特性、分辨率的大小以眼睛的舒适为准。 当选择颜色深度时，可以选择你显卡支持最大模式。

For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default
resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed
mode that can be supported by the monitor and card.
Currently it is set to:

"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 8-bit
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 16-bit
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 24-bit

Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will
be automatically skipped by the server.

 1  Change the modes for 8-bit (256 colors)
 2  Change the modes for 16-bit (32K/64K colors)
 3  Change the modes for 24-bit (24-bit color)
 4  The modes are OK, continue.

Enter your choice: 2

Select modes from the following list:

 1  "640x400"
 2  "640x480"
 3  "800x600"
 4  "1024x768"
 5  "1280x1024"
 6  "320x200"
 7  "320x240"
 8  "400x300"
 9  "1152x864"
 a  "1600x1200"
 b  "1800x1400"
 c  "512x384"

Please type the digits corresponding to the modes that you want to select.
For example, 432 selects "1024x768" "800x600" "640x480", with a
default mode of 1024x768.

Which modes? 432

You can have a virtual screen (desktop), which is screen area that is larger
than the physical screen and which is panned by moving the mouse to the edge
of the screen. If you don't want virtual desktop at a certain resolution,
you cannot have modes listed that are larger. Each color depth can have a
differently-sized virtual screen

Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want a virtual screen that is larger than the physical screen? n



For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default
resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed
mode that can be supported by the monitor and card.
Currently it is set to:

"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 8-bit
"1024x768" "800x600" "640x480" for 16-bit
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 24-bit

Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will
be automatically skipped by the server.

 1  Change the modes for 8-bit (256 colors)
 2  Change the modes for 16-bit (32K/64K colors)
 3  Change the modes for 24-bit (24-bit color)
 4  The modes are OK, continue.

Enter your choice: 4



Please specify which color depth you want to use by default:

  1  1 bit (monochrome)
  2  4 bits (16 colors)
  3  8 bits (256 colors)
  4  16 bits (65536 colors)
  5  24 bits (16 million colors)

Enter a number to choose the default depth.

4

最后，要保存你的配置，确定输入 /etc/XF86Config 作为保存位置。

I am going to write the XF86Config file now. Make sure you don't accidently
overwrite a previously configured one.

Shall I write it to /etc/X11/XF86Config? y

如果你配置失败，你也可以尝试着按 [ Yes ] 来 重新再试一次，会显示下面的信息：

          User Confirmation Requested
The XFree86 configuration process seems to have
failed.  Would you like to try again?

             [ Yes ]         No

如果配置 XFree86时遇上困难，请选择 [ No ] 并按 Enter键继续 进行安装。安装完成后可以使用 xf86cfg -textmode 或 xf86config 命令行配置程序来以 root 用户的身份进行配置。配置 XFree86 的另外一种方法 描述在 Chapter 5。如果你选择不配置XFree86 那么下一个菜单将让你选择要安装的软件包。

默认情况下可以使用组合键 Ctrl+Alt+Backspace，在发生错误或在硬件损坏前退出 设置屏幕。

默认的显示模式可以使用X系统下的 Ctrl+Alt++ 或 Ctrl+Alt+-来改变。

安装完成后，可以调整显示的高度和宽度或通过使用XFree86 下的xvidtune来将其置于中心位置。

一些不适当的配置可能会损坏你的设备。如果在使用它们前存在疑虑，请不要 安装它们。可以使用监视器的控制工具来调整Ｘ窗口的显示。与文本显示模式不同 它更容易损坏设备。

在调整这些参数前，请阅读 xvidtune(1) 手册。

下面是一个配置 XFree86 的成功例子，它选择了 使用默认的桌面。

2.9.13. 选择默认的桌面

有许多窗口管理器可以使用。它们从基本的桌面环境到全部的桌面应用，是 一个大型的软件集。一些人可能只希望使用一些占用磁盘空间少，内存低的窗口 管理器；而另外一些人则更倾向于使用有便多特性的桌面环境。选择使用那种桌 面的最好的方法就是尝试着试用一些不同的桌面环境。这些桌面都可以在安装 完成后通过ports收集或包管理器来进行安装。

您可以选择一个流行的桌面配置成为默认的桌面，可以使您在安装完 成后立刻启动它。

Figure 2-56. 选择默认桌面

使用箭头选择一个桌面，然后键入Enter键。选择的桌面将被 安装。

2.9.14. 安装软件包

这些软件包已经被预编译成二进制程序了，安装软件有一个很简单的方法。

为了说明问题，这里给您做了一个怎样来安装软件包的范例，额外的软件包 也可以在这时安装。您也可以在安装结束后使用 /stand/sysinstall 程序来安装软件包。

                     User Confirmation Requested
 The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of
 ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers
 and more. Would you like to browse the collection now?

                            [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 按Enter 将会显示软件包选择屏幕。

Figure 2-57. 选择软件所的种类

在任何时候只有安装介质上有的软件包才能被安装进系统。

如果选择All 那么所有的软件包将会被显示，您也 可以选择一个特殊的分类。使用箭头进行选择，然后键入 Enter。

一个菜单将会显示这个分类中可用的所有软件包。

Figure 2-58. 选择软件包

bash shell 被选中了。通过在加亮的软件 上键入Space 键，来选择您想要的软件所。每个选择的软件 包的简短描述都会显示在屏幕左下脚。

按 Tab 键选择 [ OK ]或 [ Cancel ]。

当您完成了安装标记之后，键入 Tab 键选择 [ OK ] 然后键入Enter 返回软件包选择菜单。

左右箭头键也可以用来选择 [ OK ]和 [ Cancel ]。用这种方法也可以 用 [ OK ] 然后按 Enter 来返回软件包选择菜单。

Figure 2-59. 安装软件包

使用 Tab 和箭头键来选择 [ Install ] 然后键入 Enter。您接着需要确定您要安装的软件包。

Figure 2-60. 确认安装的软件包

选择 [ OK ] 然后键入Enter 键将开始软件的安装， 安装信息将会不断地出现。如果有一些错误信息，请作好记录。

安装完成之后，继续最后的配置。如果您不想安装任何软件包并退回到 最终配置屏幕，请选择Install 。

2.9.15. 添加用户/组

您至少要在安装过程中添加一个用户，以便于您能不用root 来登陆使用系统。根分区通常比较小，用 root 来运行应用程序 可能会快一点。但这样会有一些危险：

                     User Confirmation Requested
 Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding
 at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since
 working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which
 adversely affect the entire system).

                            [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 然后键入Enter 继续 添加用户。

Figure 2-61. 选择用户

用箭头键来选择 User 然后按 Enter。

Figure 2-62. 添加用户信息

下面的描述信息会出现在屏幕的下方，可以使用 Tab 键来切换不同的项目，以便输入相关信息：

Login ID

新用户的登陆名（强制性必须写）

UID

这个用户的ID编号（如果不写，系统自动添加）

Group

这个用户的登陆组名（如果不写，系统自动添加）

Password

这个用户的密码（键入这个需要很仔细！）

Full name

用户的全名（解释、备注）

Member groups

这个用户所在的组

Home directory

用户的主目录（如果不写，系统自动添加）

Login shell

用户登陆的shell（默认是/bin/sh）。

登陆的shell可以在 /bin/sh 到 /usr/local/bin/bash 中修改。 bash shell 是先前默认安装的shell。 不要使用一个不存在的或您不能登陆的shell。最通用的shell是使用 BSD-world 的 C shell，可以通过指定/bin/tcsh来修改。

用户也可以被添加到 wheel 组中成了一个超级用户， 从而拥有 root权限。

当您感觉满意时，键入 [ OK ] 键，用户和组管理菜单将会重新出现。

Figure 2-63. 退出用户和组管理

因特殊需要的组也可以在此时进行添加，也可以在安装完成后使用 /stand/sysinstall 来完成。

当您完成添加用户的时候，选择Exit 然后键入Enter 继续下面的安装。

2.9.16. 设置 root 密码

                        Message
 Now you must set the system manager's password.
 This is the password you'll use to log in as "root".

                         [ OK ]

               [ Press enter to continue ]

键入 Enter 来设置 root 密码。

密码必须正确地输入两次。

Changing local password for root.
New password :
Retype new password :

密码成功键入后，安装将继续。

2.9.17. 退出安装

如果您需要配置额外的网络设备或要做其它的配置，您可以在这时或以后 通过 /stand/sysinstall来安装。

                     User Confirmation Requested
 Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last
 options?

                              Yes   [ No ]

选择 [ No ] 然后键入 Enter 返回到主安装菜单。

Figure 2-64. 退出安装

选择 [X Exit Install] 然后键入 Enter。您可能需要确认是否真的退出安装：

                     User Confirmation Requested
 Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to
 remove any floppies from the drives).

                            [ Yes ]   No

选择 [ Yes ] 取出软盘。CDROM驱动器将被锁定，直 到机器重新启动。CDROM然后就可以从驱动器中取出来了。

在系统重新启动的时候可能会见到出错信息。

2.9.18. FreeBSD的启动

2.9.18.1. FreeBSD 在 i386上启动

如果启动正常，您将看到在屏幕上有很多信息滚动，最后您会看到登陆命令行。 你可以通过键入 Scroll-Lock和使用 PgUp 与 PgDn来查看信息，再键入 Scroll-Lock 回到命令行。

记录信息可能不会显示（缓冲区的限制）。您可以通过键入 dmesg 来查看。

使用您在安装过程中设置的用户名/密码来登陆。（例子中使用 rpratt）。除非必须的时候请不要用 root 用户登陆。

典型的启动信息：（忽略版本信息）

Copyright (c) 1992-2002 The FreeBSD Project.
Copyright (c) 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994
        The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.

Timecounter "i8254"  frequency 1193182 Hz
CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU)
  Origin = "AuthenticAMD"  Id = 0x580  Stepping = 0
  Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX>
  AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!>
real memory  = 268435456 (262144K bytes)
config> di sn0
config> di lnc0
config> di le0
config> di ie0
config> di fe0
config> di cs0
config> di bt0
config> di aic0
config> di aha0
config> di adv0
config> q
avail memory = 256311296 (250304K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0491000.
Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc049109c.
md0: Malloc disk
Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at
device 10.0 on pci0
ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x64 on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppbus0: IEEE1284 device found /NIBBLE
Probing for PnP devices on ppbus0:
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0
lpt0: Interrupt-driven port
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a
swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device
Automatic boot in progress...
/dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1a: clean, 48752 free (552 frags, 6025 blocks, 0.9% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1f: clean, 128997 free (21 frags, 16122 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1g: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1g: clean, 3036299 free (43175 frags, 374073 blocks, 1.3% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1e: clean, 128193 free (17 frags, 16022 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
Doing initial network setup: hostname.
ed0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
        inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
        inet6 fe80::5054::5ff::fede:731b%ed0 prefixlen 64 tentative scopeid 0x1
        ether 52:54:05:de:73:1b
lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384
        inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8
        inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128
        inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000
Additional routing options: IP gateway=YES TCP keepalive=YES
routing daemons:.
additional daemons: syslogd.
Doing additional network setup:.
Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key
Generating public/private rsa1 key pair.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
cd:76:89:16:69:0e:d0:6e:f8:66:d0:07:26:3c:7e:2d root@k6-2.example.com
 creating ssh DSA host key
Generating public/private dsa key pair.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
f9:a1:a9:47:c4:ad:f9:8d:52:b8:b8:ff:8c:ad:2d:e6 root@k6-2.example.com.
setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib
/usr/local/lib
a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout /usr/X11R6/lib/aout
starting standard daemons: inetd cron sshd usbd sendmail.
Initial rc.i386 initialization:.
rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused.
Additional ABI support: linux.
Local package initialization:.
Additional TCP options:.

FreeBSD/i386 (k6-2.example.com) (ttyv0)

login: rpratt
Password:

生成 RSA 和 DSA密钥在比较慢的机器上可能要花很长时间。这只是一个 新安装后的首次启动，以后的启动会变得更快一点。

如果 X 服务器已经配置好了，默认的桌面也选择好了，就可以在命令行键入 startx 来启动视察环境。

2.9.18.2. FreeBSD 在 Alpha机器上启动

一旦安装完成，您就可以键入下面的命令来启动FreeBSD：

>>>BOOT DKC0

这是从指定的固定硬件进行引导。如果要使 FreeBSD 下次能够自动启动， 使用下面的命令：

>>> SET BOOT_OSFLAGS A
>>> SET BOOT_FILE ''
>>> SET BOOTDEF_DEV DKC0
>>> SET AUTO_ACTION BOOT

启动信息跟启动 i386机器时差不多。（但不完全一样）

2.9.19. FreeBSD 关机

正确的关闭操作系统是很重要的。不要仅仅关闭电源。首先，你需要成为一个超 级用户，通过键入 su 命令来实现。然后输入 root 密码。这需要用户是 wheel 组的一名成员。然后，以root键入 shutdown -h now命令。

The operating system has halted.
Please press any key to reboot.

当shutdown命令发出后，屏幕上出现 ``Please press any key to reboot'' 信息时，您就可以安全的关闭计算机了。如果按下任意一个键，计算机将重新启动。

您也能够使用 Ctrl+Alt+Del 组合键来重新启动计算机，但是不推荐使用这个操作。

2.10. 支持的硬件

FreeBSD当前可以广泛运行在ISA、VLB、EISA、PCI总线的PC上，包括 Inter,AMD,Cyrix或 NexGen ``x86''系列的机器，还有一些 Compaq Alpha的机器。支持普通的 IDE 或 ESDI 驱动配置，各种SCSI控制器， PCMCIA卡，USB设备，网卡和其它网络串口设备。FreeBSD也支持IBM微通道 （MCA）的总线结构。

每个发行版都会提供一个FreeBSD支持的硬件列表。您可以在名字叫做 HARDWARE.TXT的文件中找到。它可以在CDROM或FTP发行组件 或sysinstall的文档菜单中找到。对于特定的架构，都 有相应的硬件支持列表。也可以在FreeBSD的网站 Release Information 找到更多的信息。

2.11. 常见问题

下面将介绍一些在安装过程中常见的问题，像如何报告发生的问题，如何 双重启动FreeBSD和 MS-DOS。/para>

2.11.1. 当您遇到错误时，应该怎么做？

由于pc结构的限制，不可能100%的不出现问题，但是有些问题是你可以 自己解决的。

先检查你的硬件，确保你的硬件被支持。

如果您的硬件能够被扶持，但还是会出问题，那就重新启动计算机。当出现 内核配置信息的时候，重新配置一下硬件信息。因为绝大多数硬件的IRQ，淡IO地 址，DMA通道都有它们的生产商预先进行默认配置。如果你的硬件已经重新装配了， 就需要使用配置编辑器告诉FreeBSD到哪里去找相关信息。

如果某个设备配置好后，发现又有个设备出现错误。碰到这种情况，就当卸掉 这个设备的驱动程序。

Note: 有些安装问题可以借助更新硬件的程序来解决，特别是主板的 BIOS 。大部分的主板制造商都会提供网站给用户下载新的 BIOS以及提供如何更新的说明。

也有许多制造商强烈建议，除非必要否则不要轻易更新 BIOS 。因为更新的过程可能 会发生问题，进而损害BIOS 芯片。

Warning不要在安装中把您必需的驱动程序卸掉，如您的监视器sc0 。如果安装中在修改守配置后，仍然会出现一些意想不到的情况，最好所配置文件恢复到原来 的样子。把它重新启动，再试一下。

在配置模式下，您可以：

  • 列出在内核中安装的设备驱动程序。

  • 禁用不适合您机器的设备驱动程序。

  • 通过驱动程序改变IRQ，DRQ和IO端口地址。

调整内核与您的硬件设置一致之后，键入 Q ，以新的设置 重新启动计算机。当FreeBSD安装完成之后，在配置模式下做的更改会一直存在，不需 要在每次启动计算机时再重新设置。即使如此，有可能您会想建立一个定制内核使您 的系统效率达到最好，可以看看以下的链接 custom kernel。

2.11.2. 处理 MS-DOS® 分区存在的问题

许多FreeBSD的用户基于Microsoft 的 PC 上安装FreeBSD。以下是一些关于在这种系统中安装FreeBSD常会出现的问题。 FreeBSD 中有一个FIPS的应用程序。这个工具程序可以在 安装光盘的 tools 目录下找到或从FreeBSD 的镜像站点下载。

FIPS 允许你将现有的 MS-DOS 分区一分为二，保留原 原有的分区，让您安装到空出来的分区上。您首先要用 Windows的 Disk Defragmenter或 Norton Disk Tools来对 MS-DOS 分区进行碎片整理。然后， 就可以重新启动把FIPS 。 看一下安装菜单，估计一下大概需要 多少安装空间。随后您就可以在新分区上重新引导安装 FreeBSD请查阅 Distributions 菜单上你的安装类型需要多少空间。

有一个由PowerQuest公司生产的非常有用的工具。从 http://www.powerquest.com网站上 可以得到PartitionMagic。这个工具的功能比 FIPS要强大。如果你经常要添加或删除操作系统，强烈建议 您使用它。当然，它很贵。如果您只是想安装 FreeBSD 的话， FIPS 就已足够了。

2.11.3. 使用 MS-DOS 和 Windows® 文件系统

现在 FreeBSD 还不支持经过Double Space™ 应用程序压缩过的文件系统。因此其它的文件系统在被FreeBSD访问其数据之前必须先 解压缩。它可以通过运行位于 Start> Programs > System Tools menu中的 Compression Agent程序来实现。

FreeBSD可以支持基于 MS-DOS 的文件系统。这要求你使用带参数的 mount_msdos(8) 命令 (在 FreeBSD 5.X版本，相应的命令为 mount_msdosfs(8)) 最常使用的是：

# mount_msdos /dev/ad0s1 /mnt

在此例子中， MS-DOS 文件系统位于主硬盘的第一个分区。您的情况可能与引不同， 查看命令 dmesg和 mount 的输出。它们应该 可以让你得到足够的分区信息。

Note: MS-DOS 的扩展分区会被映射在 FreeBSD分区的末尾。换句话说，分区号要大于 FreeBSD 正在使用的分区号。例如，第一个 MS-DOS 分区可能位于 /dev/ad0s1，FreeBSD 分区可能位于 /dev/ad0s2，跟着是 MS-DOS 的扩展分区位于 /dev/ad0s3。这可能会使您感觉迷茫。

NTFS 分区也可以通过类似 mount_ntfs(8) 命令挂接在FreeBSD上。

2.11.4. Alpha 用户的问题与解答

这节主要回答一些在Alpha系统上安装FreeBSD时经常问到的问题。

2.11.4.1. 我可以从 ARC 或 Alpha BIOS 控制台启动吗？
2.11.4.2. 求救，我没有空间了！我需要删除每一样东西吗？
2.11.4.3. 我可以挂上 Compaq Tru64 或 VMS 的文件系统吗？

2.11.4.1. 我可以从 ARC 或 Alpha BIOS 控制台启动吗？

不行。 FreeBSD，像Compaq Tru64 和 VMS，只能从SRM 控制台启动。

2.11.4.2. 求救，我没有空间了！我需要删除每一样东西吗？

不，这个时候不行。

2.11.4.3. 我可以挂上 Compaq Tru64 或 VMS 的文件系统吗？

不，这个时候不行。

2.12. 高级安装指南

Contributed by Valentino Vaschetto.

这节主要描述在一些特殊情况下如何安装FreeBSD。

2.12.1. 在一个没有显示器或键盘的系统上安装FreeBSD

这种类型的安装叫做 ``headless install（无关安装）''， 因您正要安装FreeBSD的机器不是没带显示器，就是没有显卡。您可能会问那怎么安装？ 可以使用一个串行控制台。串行控制台基本上是使用另外一台机器来充当主显示设备 和键盘。要这样做，只要执行下面的步骤：创建安装软件，请看 Section 2.2.7一节说明。

按下面的步骤，修改这些软盘用来引导进入一个串行控制台：

  1. 通过启动软盘来引导进入一个串行控制台

    如果您想用软盘，FreeBSD将进入它通常的安装模式。我们要把FreeBSD 引导进入串行控制台，需要这样做，您必须使用 mount(8)命令在FreeBSD系统 上挂一kern.flp的那个软盘。

    # mount /dev/fd0 /floppy

    现在您已经挂上了软盘，必须改变软盘的目录：

    # cd /floppy

    这儿是您必须设置软盘引导进入串行控制台的地方。您必须制作一个包含 /boot/loader -h这行的叫做boot.config 的文件。所有这些是为了给引导程序一个标记以引导进入串行控制台。

    # echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.config

    现在您已经正确配置好了软盘，您必须使用 umount(8) 命令卸下软盘。

    # cd /
# umount /mnt

    现在你可以从软盘驱动器中取出软盘了。

  2. 连接您的 null Modem 线

    你现在需要一根null modem线来连接两台机器。只要连接两台机器 的串口。 一根普通的串行线是不行的，你需要使用一根 null modem的线，因为它在一些十字交叉口有金属线。

  3. 开始启动安装

    现在开始启动安装。把 kern.flp 的那张软盘 插入软盘驱动器，然后开启电源。

  4. 连接你的无头机器

    现在你已经通过cu(1)连接到了那台机器。

    # cu -l /dev/cuaa0

就这样！你已经能够通过你的cu session对话来控制 那台“无头”机器了。它将要求你把 mfsroot.flp的那张软盘 插入驱动器，然后它将提示选择使用哪种终端。只要选择FreeBSD的彩色控制台，然后 继续你的安装。

2.13. 准备你自己的安装介质

Note: 为了避免重复 ``FreeBSD disk'' 在这里指 FreeBSD CDROM or DVD 那即意味着你要购买或自己制做。

有好几个原因需要你创建自己的FreeBSD安装介质。这可能是物理介质，如磁带， 使用 sysinstall程序找到的安装文件，FTP站点或 MS-DOS分区。

例如：

  • 你有许多机器连接到本地网络，使用一个FreeBSD光盘。你要使用FreeBSD来 创建一个本地FTP站点，然后使用这个FTP站点来代替连接到Internet。

  • 你有一个FreeBSD光盘，FreeBSD不支持你的 CD/DVD驱动器，但 MS-DOS/Windows 支持。你要拷贝安装文件到一个DOS分区，然后使用 这些文件进行安装。

  • 你要安装的计算机没有 CD/DVD驱动器和网卡，但你可以连接一个 ``Laplink-style'' 串口或并口线缆到那台计算机。

  • 你要通过一个磁带机来安装FreeBSD.

2.13.1. 创建一张安装光盘

FreeBSD的每个发行版本都提供两张CDROM映像(``ISO images'')。 如果你有刻录机，这些映像文件可以被(``burned'') 成FreeBSD的安装光盘。 如果没有刻录机，而上网带宽却很便宜，它也是一种很好的安装方式。

  1. 下载正确的 ISO 映像文件

    每个版本的ISO映像文件都可以从 ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ISO-IMAGES-arch/version 或最近的镜像站点下载。选择合适的 arch version 。

    目录中包含下面一些映像文件：

    Table 2-5. FreeBSD ISO映像文件名和含意

    文件名 包含内容
    version-mini.iso 你安装 FreeBSD所需要的最基本的东西。
    version-disc1.iso 你安装 FreeBSD所需要的最基本的东西，和一些附加的第三方厂商的试用版软件包
    version-disc2.iso ``live filesystem''，它是用来在 sysinstall程序里用来 ``修复''系统 用的。里面包含 FreeBSD CVS 树的一个拷贝，还有许多附加的第三方厂商的试用 版软件包。

    你必须 下载一个 mini-ISO 映像盘，或是disc one映像盘。 不要都下载下来，因为disc one 映像盘的内容包括了所有在 mini ISO映像盘中的内容。

    如果你的网络费用很低，你可以使用 mini ISO 映像。它可以让你完成安装 FreeBSD的任务，如果你还想安装其它的软件包，可以下载它们并使用 ports/packages 系统来安装。（详细请看Chapter 4）

    如果你想适当的在安装介质上安装一些第三方的软件包，那么你可以使用 disc one映像盘。

    其它的映像盘也是很有用的，但不是必须的，尤其是在你有高速的网络连接时。

  2. 刻录 CDs

    你必须把这些映像文件刻录成光盘。如果你在其它的FreeBSD系统上完成 此项工作，请看 Section 12.5 得到更多的信息，（特别是 Section 12.5.3 和 Section 12.5.4）

    如果你在其它的系统平台上执行，你需要相应的刻录软件。映像文件使用 的是标准的ISO格式，必须被你的刻录软件所支持。

2.13.2. 使用FreeBSD磁盘作为本地端FTP站点

FreeBSD磁盘的配置跟FreeBSD FTP站点的配置是一样的。这让你很简单 建立一个本地的FTP站点以便给本地网络中其它机器安装FreeBSD使用。

  1. 在要作为FTP站点的那台FreeBSD机器上，确定FreeBSD磁盘放入光驱 中并将它挂在/cdrom目录中。

    # mount /cdrom

  2. 在/etc/passwd文件中建立一个可匿名访问FTP 服务器的账号。你可以利用vipw(8) 命令编辑/etc/passwd 文件，加入下面这一行叙述：

    ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent

  3. 确定在/etc/inetd.conf配置文件中开启 了FTP服务。

任何本地网络中的机器在安装FreeBSD选择安装介质时就可以选择透过 FTP站点，然后选取 ``Other''后输入 ftp://本地FTP服务器 即可以透过本地的FTP站点来安装FreeBSD。

Warning此方式最好使用在有防火墙保护的内部网络。如果要将此FTP服务公开给外面的 网际网络（非本地用户），你的电脑必须承担被侵入或其它的风险。我们强烈建议你 要有完善的安全机制才这样做。

2.13.3. 创建安装软盘

如果你从软盘安装（我们不推荐那样做），或者是由于 不支持硬件或者更简单的理由是因为你坚持要使用软盘安装。你必须准备几张软盘。

至少这些软盘必须是 1.44 MB 或 1.2 MB 的，用来容纳所有在 bin (二进制软件包)目录下的文件。如果你在DOS操作系统 下准备就 MUST使用 MS-DOS下的 FORMAT 命令来格式化软盘。如果你使用的是 Windows操作系统，在文件浏览器中用右键 单击 A: 驱动器，并选择 ``Format''。

不要 指望厂家的预先格式化！最好还是亲自进行格式化。 过去用户报告的很多问题都是由于不正确地使用格式化设备所造成的，所以我们需要在这 儿着重提一下。

如果你在另外一台FreeBSD的机器上做了启动盘的话，进行格式化是一个不 错的主意。虽然你不需要把每张盘都做成DOS文件系统。你也可以使用 disklabel 和 newfs 命令来创建一个UFS文件系统，具体操作按下面的顺序进行：

# fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440
# disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3
# newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0

Note: 如果使用 5.25"软盘的话，需要使用 fd0.1200 和 floppy5 来格式化 1.2 MB 的磁盘空间。

然后你就可以像其它的文件系统一样挂上和写入这些磁盘。

格式化这些磁盘后，你必须拷贝文件到磁盘中。这些发行文件被分割成刚 好可存进五张 1.44 MB 软盘。检查你所有的磁盘，找出所有可能适合的文件。 直到你找到所有需要的配置并且将它们以这种方式安置。第一个配置都应该有一个 子目录在磁盘上，例如： a:\bin\bin.aa, a:\bin\bin.ab, 等等。

一旦你进入选择安装介质的屏幕，选择 select ``Floppy'' 将会看到后面的提示符。

2.13.4. 从一个 MS-DOS 分区安装

如果从一个 MS-DOS 分区安装，你需要从发布文档拷贝文件到分区 要目录下一个叫做 freebsd 的目录中。例如： c:\freebsd。CDROM或FTP站点目录中的内容会部分的 拷贝到这个目录中，如果从光盘中拷贝，所以我们建议你使用DOS的 xcopy 命令。例如，准备一个最小的FreeBSD安装。

C:\> md c:\freebsd
C:\> xcopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /s
C:\> xcopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /s

假设 C: 盘是你的空闲空间， E: 盘是你挂接的 CDROM。

如果你没有光盘驱动器，你可以从以下网站下载发行包。 ftp.FreeBSD.org. 每一个发行包都在一个目录中，例如 base 发行包可以在 5.2.1/base/目录中找到。

Note: 在 4.X 和其它老版本的 FreeBSD the ``base''发行包被叫做 ``bin''. 如果你使用这些版本的话，请调整上例中的命令和URLS.

对很多发行包来说，如果你希望从 MS-DOS分区安装的话（你有足够的空间）， 安装 c:\freebsd -- 下的每个文件－这个 BIN 发行包只是最低限度的要求。

2.13.5. 创建一个安装磁带

从磁带安装也许是最简单的方式，比在线使用 FTP 安装或使用 CDROM 还快。 安装的程序假设是简单地被压缩在磁带上。在拿到所有配置文件后，简单的解开它们， 用下面的命令：

# cd /freebsd/distdir
# tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2

在你安装的时候，你要确定留有足够的空间给临时目录（允许你选择） 来容纳磁带安装时 full 的内容。由于不是随机访问 磁带的，所以这种安装方法需要很多临时空间。你需要和磁带机所存储内容一样 多的空间。

Note: 开始安装时，在从软盘启动before，磁带机 必须已经放在驱动设备中。否则，安装过程中可能会找不到它。

2.13.6. 通过网络安装

有三种类型的网络安装方法。串口（SLIP或PPP），并口（PLIP），以太网 （标准的以太网控制器，包括PCMCIA）。

SLIP 支持是相当原始的，并且被限制在主要对hard-wired 的连接，就像 一台膝上型计算机与另一台计算机间的串行线。现在的SLIP的安装还没有提供拨号功能， 这个连接应该是 hard-wired ；用PPP工具提供的这种便利性应该首先尽可能被用于SLIP 设备。

如果你使用一个MODEM，那你就只有PPP这一种选择了。在您安装的过程中， 要确定你能很容易地获得完整且快速的关于你服务提供商的信息。

如果你使用 PAP 或 CHAP 方式连接到你的 ISP，（换句话说，如果你不使用 脚本在Windows中连接到你的ISP），那么你需要在ppp 提示符下输入dial 命令。否则，当PPP连接者只提供一种最简单的 终端模拟器，你必须知道如何使用针对MODEM的 ``AT commands''拨号到你 的ISP。想知道更深入的信息可以参考用户级PPP那节 handbook and FAQ 。如果你有一些问题，可以使用 set log local ...命令将日志显示在屏幕上。

你也可以通过并口电缆连接到另外一台FreeBSD（2.0或以后的版本）机器上进行 安装，你可以考虑使用 ``laplink'' 并口电缆进行安装。通过并口安装要 比通过串口（最高 50 kbytes/sec）安装快得多。

最后，通过网络安装最快的方法是利用以太网技术！FreeBSD支持绝大多数普通 的以太网卡。每个FreeBSD发行版都在硬件注释中提供支持的网卡的列表和需要的设置。 如果你要使用PCMCIA接口的以太网，在启动计算机 before， 确信已经把它插好了。目前，FreeBSD还不支持PCMCIA的热插拔。

通过网络安装，你可能需要知道IP地址，地址掩码，还有机器的名字。如果你 通过PPP进行安装，就不需要静态的IP地址，IP地址会由ISP给你自动指派。你的系统 管理员会告诉你通过网络安装的细节。如果你通过主机名而不是IP地址来访问其它主 机，需要有一个域名服务器或一个网关地址（如果你使用PPP进行安装，那它就你的 的ISP的IP地址）。如果你要通过一个HTTP的代理服务器进行FTP安装，需要一个代理 服务器地址。如果你不知道这些，在安装 before可以询问 你的系统管理员或你的ISP服务商。

2.13.6.1. 通过NFS安装之前

NFS安装方式是非常直接的。只需要简单地将FreeBSD文件拷贝到一台服务 器上，然后在安装时选择NFS介质。

如果这个服务器要``特殊的端口''才能支持（如SUN的工作站）， 你需要在安装前进行设备。

如果你有一块比较糟糕的以太网卡，提供相当慢的转换速度。你也许能 先到最合适的选项。

为了达到NFS安装的目的，这个服务器必须支持 subdir 加载。例如，如果你的 FreeBSD 5.2.1 目录存在： ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD，然后 ziggy 将必须允许直接挂上 /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD，而不仅仅是 /usr 或 /usr/archive/stuff。

在 FreeBSD的 /etc/exports 配置文件中，是由 -alldirs 选项来控制的。其它 NFS服务器也许有不同的方式。 如果你从服务器得到``permission denied'' 这个信息，可能是因为 你没有正确的启用它。

Chapter 3. UNIX Basics

Rewritten by Chris Shumway.

3.1. Synopsis

The following chapter will cover the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. Much of this material is relevant for any UNIX like operating system. Feel free to skim over this chapter if you are familiar with the material. If you are new to FreeBSD, then you will definitely want to read through this chapter carefully.

After reading this chapter, you will know:

  • How to use the ``virtual consoles'' of FreeBSD.

  • How UNIX file permissions work.

  • The default FreeBSD file system layout.

  • How to mount and unmount file systems.

  • What processes, daemons, and signals are.

  • What a shell is, and how to change your default login environment.

  • How to use basic text editors.

  • What devices and device nodes are.

  • What binary format is used under FreeBSD.

  • How to read manual pages for more information.

3.2. Virtual Consoles and Terminals

FreeBSD can be used in various ways. One of them is typing commands to a text terminal. A lot of the flexibility and power of a UNIX operating system is readily available at your hands when using FreeBSD this way. This section describes what ``terminals'' and ``consoles'' are, and how you can use them in FreeBSD.

3.2.1. The Console

If you have not configured FreeBSD to automatically start a graphical environment during startup, the system will present you with a login prompt after it boots, right after the startup scripts finish running. You will see something similar to:

Additional ABI support:.
Local package initialization:.
Additional TCP options:.

Fri Sep 20 13:01:06 EEST 2002

FreeBSD/i386 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0)

login:

The messages might be a bit different on your system, but you will see something similar. The last two lines are what we are interested in right now. The second last line reads:

FreeBSD/i386 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0)

This line contains some bits of information about the system you have just booted. You are looking at a ``FreeBSD'' console, running on an Intel or compatible processor of the x86 architecture[1]. The name of this machine (every UNIX machine has a name) is pc3.example.org, and you are now looking at its system console--the ttyv0 terminal.

Finally, the last line is always:

login:

This is the part where you are supposed to type in your ``username'' to log into FreeBSD. The next section describes how you can do this.

3.2.2. Logging into FreeBSD

FreeBSD is a multiuser, multiprocessing system. This is the formal description that is usually given to a system that can be used by many different people, who simultaneously run a lot of programs on a single machine.

Every multiuser system needs some way to distinguish one ``user'' from the rest. In FreeBSD (and all the UNIX like operating systems), this is accomplished by requiring that every user must ``log into'' the system before being able to run programs. Every user has a unique name (the ``username'') and a personal, secret key (the ``password''). FreeBSD will ask for these two before allowing a user to run any programs.

Right after FreeBSD boots and finishes running its startup scripts[2], it will present you with a prompt and ask for a valid username:

login:

For the sake of this example, let us assume that your username is john. Type john at this prompt and press Enter. You should then be presented with a prompt to enter a ``password'':

login: john
Password:

Type in john's password now, and press Enter. The password is not echoed! You need not worry about this right now. Suffice it to say that it is done for security reasons.

If you have typed your password correctly, you should by now be logged into FreeBSD and ready to try out all the available commands.

You should see the MOTD or message of the day followed by a command prompt (a #, $, or $ character). This indicates you have successfully logged into FreeBSD.

3.2.3. Multiple Consoles

Running UNIX commands in one console is fine, but FreeBSD can run many programs at once. Having one console where commands can be typed would be a bit of a waste when an operating system like FreeBSD can run dozens of programs at the same time. This is where ``virtual consoles'' can be very helpful.

FreeBSD can be configured to present you with many different virtual consoles. You can switch from one of them to any other virtual console by pressing a couple of keys on your keyboard. Each console has its own different output channel, and FreeBSD takes care of properly redirecting keyboard input and monitor output as you switch from one virtual console to the next.

Special key combinations have been reserved by FreeBSD for switching consoles[3]. You can use Alt-F1, Alt-F2, through Alt-F8 to switch to a different virtual console in FreeBSD.

As you are switching from one console to the next, FreeBSD takes care of saving and restoring the screen output. The result is an ``illusion'' of having multiple ``virtual'' screens and keyboards that you can use to type commands for FreeBSD to run. The programs that you launch on one virtual console do not stop running when that console is not visible. They continue running when you have switched to a different virtual console.

3.2.4. The /etc/ttys File

The default configuration of FreeBSD will start up with eight virtual consoles. This is not a hardwired setting though, and you can easily customize your installation to boot with more or fewer virtual consoles. The number and settings of the virtual consoles are configured in the /etc/ttys file.

You can use the /etc/ttys file to configure the virtual consoles of FreeBSD. Each uncommented line in this file (lines that do not start with a # character) contains settings for a single terminal or virtual console. The default version of this file that ships with FreeBSD configures nine virtual consoles, and enables eight of them. They are the lines that start with ttyv:

# name  getty                           type    status          comments
#
ttyv0   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
# Virtual terminals
ttyv1   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv2   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv3   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv4   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv5   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv6   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv7   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure
ttyv8   "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon"  xterm   off secure

For a detailed description of every column in this file and all the options you can use to set things up for the virtual consoles, consult the ttys(5) manual page.

3.2.5. Single User Mode Console

A detailed description of what ``single user mode'' is can be found in Section 7.6.2. It is worth noting that there is only one console when you are running FreeBSD in single user mode. There are no virtual consoles available. The settings of the single user mode console can also be found in the /etc/ttys file. Look for the line that starts with console:

# name  getty                           type    status          comments
#
# If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password
# when going to single-user mode.
console none                            unknown off secure

Note: As the comments above the console line indicate, you can edit this line and change secure to insecure. If you do that, when FreeBSD boots into single user mode, it will still ask for the root password.

Be careful when changing this to insecure If you ever forget the root password, booting into single user mode is a bit involved. It is still possible, but it might be a bit hard for someone who is not very comfortable with the FreeBSD booting process and the programs involved.

3.3. Permissions

FreeBSD, being a direct descendant of BSD UNIX, is based on several key UNIX concepts. The first and most pronounced is that FreeBSD is a multi-user operating system. The system can handle several users all working simultaneously on completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for properly sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals, memory, and CPU time fairly to each user.

Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users, everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing who can read, write, and execute the resource. These permissions are stored as three octets broken into three pieces, one for the owner of the file, one for the group that the file belongs to, and one for everyone else. This numerical representation works like this:

Value Permission Directory Listing
0 No read, no write, no execute ---
1 No read, no write, execute --x
2 No read, write, no execute -w-
3 No read, write, execute -wx
4 Read, no write, no execute r--
5 Read, no write, execute r-x
6 Read, write, no execute rw-
7 Read, write, execute rwx

You can use the -l command line argument to ls(1) to view a long directory listing that includes a column with information about a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. For example, a ls -l in an arbitrary directory may show:

% ls -l
total 530
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel     512 Sep  5 12:31 myfile
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel     512 Sep  5 12:31 otherfile
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel    7680 Sep  5 12:31 email.txt
...

Here is how the first column of ls -l is broken up:

-rw-r--r--

The first (leftmost) character tells if this file is a regular file, a directory, a special character device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. In this case, the - indicates a regular file. The next three characters, rw- in this example, give the permissions for the owner of the file. The next three characters, r--, give the permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final three characters, r--, give the permissions for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. In the case of this file, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file would be 644, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's permission.

This is all well and good, but how does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD actually treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to just like any other file. These special device files are stored on the /dev directory.

Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different meaning than that of files. When a directory is marked executable, it means it can be traversed into, that is, it is possible to ``cd'' (change directory) into it. This also means that within the directory it is possible to access files whose names are known (subject, of course, to the permissions on the files themselves).

In particular, in order to perform a directory listing, read permission must be set on the directory, whilst to delete a file that one knows the name of, it is necessary to have write and execute permissions to the directory containing the file.

There are more permission bits, but they are primarily used in special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky directories. If you want more information on file permissions and how to set them, be sure to look at the chmod(1) manual page.

3.3.1. Symbolic Permissions

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

Symbolic permissions, sometimes referred to as symbolic expressions, use characters in place of octal values to assign permissions to files or directories. Symbolic expressions use the syntax of (who) (action) (permissions), where the following values are available:

Option Letter Represents
(who) u User
(who) g Group owner
(who) o Other
(who) a All (``world'')
(action) + Adding permissions
(action) - Removing permissions
(action) = Explicitly set permissions
(permissions) r Read
(permissions) w Write
(permissions) x Execute
(permissions) t Sticky bit
(permissions) s Set UID or GID

These values are used with the chmod(1) command just like before, but with letters. For an example, you could use the following command to block other users from accessing FILE:

% chmod go= FILE

A comma separated list can be provided when more than one set of changes to a file must be made. For example the following command will remove the groups and ``world'' write permission on FILE, then it adds the execute permissions for everyone:

% chmod go-w,a+x FILE

3.4. Directory Structure

The FreeBSD directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining an overall understanding of the system. The most important concept to grasp is that of the root directory, ``/''. This directory is the first one mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user operation. The root directory also contains mount points for every other file system that you may want to mount.

A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto the root file system. Standard mount points include /usr, /var, /mnt, and /cdrom. These directories are usually referenced to entries in the file /etc/fstab. /etc/fstab is a table of various file systems and mount points for reference by the system. Most of the file systems in /etc/fstab are mounted automatically at boot time from the script rc(8) unless they contain the noauto option. Consult the fstab(5) manual page for more information on the format of the /etc/fstab file and the options it contains.

A complete description of the file system hierarchy is available in hier(7). For now, a brief overview of the most common directories will suffice.

Directory Description
/ Root directory of the file system.
/bin/ User utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments.
/boot/ Programs and configuration files used during operating system bootstrap.
/boot/defaults/ Default bootstrapping configuration files; see loader.conf(5).
/dev/ Device nodes; see intro(4).
/etc/ System configuration files and scripts.
/etc/defaults/ Default system configuration files; see rc(8).
/etc/mail/ Configuration files for mail transport agents such as sendmail(8).
/etc/namedb/ named configuration files; see named(8).
/etc/periodic/ Scripts that are run daily, weekly, and monthly, via cron(8); see periodic(8).
/etc/ppp/ ppp configuration files; see ppp(8).
/mnt/ Empty directory commonly used by system administrators as a temporary mount point.
/proc/ Process file system; see procfs(5), mount_procfs(8).
/root/ Home directory for the root account.
/sbin/ System programs and administration utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments.
/stand/ Programs used in a standalone environment.
/tmp/ Temporary files, usually a mfs(8) memory-based file system (the contents of /tmp are usually NOT preserved across a system reboot).
/usr/ The majority of user utilities and applications.
/usr/bin/ Common utilities, programming tools, and applications.
/usr/include/ Standard C include files.
/usr/lib/ Archive libraries.
/usr/libdata/ Miscellaneous utility data files.
/usr/libexec/ System daemons & system utilities (executed by other programs).
/usr/local/ Local executables, libraries, etc. Also used as the default destination for the FreeBSD ports framework. Within /usr/local, the general layout sketched out by hier(7) for /usr should be used. Exceptions are the man directory, which is directly under /usr/local rather than under /usr/local/share, and the ports documentation is in share/doc/port.
/usr/obj/ Architecture-specific target tree produced by building the /usr/src tree.
/usr/ports The FreeBSD ports collection (optional).
/usr/sbin/ System daemons & system utilities (executed by users).
/usr/share/ Architecture-independent files.
/usr/src/ BSD and/or local source files.
/usr/X11R6/ X11R6 distribution executables, libraries, etc (optional).
/var/ Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files.
/var/log/ Miscellaneous system log files.
/var/mail/ User mailbox files.
/var/spool/ Miscellaneous printer and mail system spooling directories.
/var/tmp/ Temporary files that are kept between system reboots.
/var/yp NIS maps.


3.5. Disk Organization

The smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files is the filename. Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that readme.txt and README.TXT are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension (.txt) of a file to determine whether the file is program, or a document, or some other form of data.

Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also contain other directories, allowing you to build up a hierarchy of directories within one another. This makes it much easier to organize your data.

Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or directory name, followed by a forward slash, /, followed by any other directory names that are necessary. If you have directory foo, which contains directory bar, which contains the file readme.txt, then the full name, or path to the file is foo/bar/readme.txt.

Directories and files are stored in a filesystem. Each filesystem contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the root directory for that filesystem. This root directory can then contain other directories.

So far this is probably similar to any other operating system you may have used. There are a few differences; for example, DOS uses \ to separate file and directory names, while Mac OS® uses :.

FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the path. You would not write c:/foo/bar/readme.txt on FreeBSD.

Instead, one filesystem is designated the root filesystem. The root filesystem's root directory is referred to as /. Every other filesystem is then mounted under the root filesystem. No matter how many disks you have on your FreeBSD system, every directory appears to be part of the same disk.

Suppose you have three filesystems, called A, B, and C. Each filesystem has one root directory, which contains two other directories, called A1, A2 (and likewise B1, B2 and C1, C2).

Call A the root filesystem. If you used the ls command to view the contents of this directory you would see two subdirectories, A1 and A2. The directory tree looks like this:

A filesystem must be mounted on to a directory in another filesystem. So now suppose that you mount filesystem B on to the directory A1. The root directory of B replaces A1, and the directories in B appear accordingly:

Any files that are in the B1 or B2 directories can be reached with the path /A1/B1 or /A1/B2 as necessary. Any files that were in /A1 have been temporarily hidden. They will reappear if B is unmounted from A.

If B had been mounted on A2 then the diagram would look like this:

and the paths would be /A2/B1 and /A2/B2 respectively.

Filesystems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the last example, the C filesystem could be mounted on top of the B1 directory in the B filesystem, leading to this arrangement:

Or C could be mounted directly on to the A filesystem, under the A1 directory:

If you are familiar with DOS, this is similar, although not identical, to the join command.

This is not normally something you need to concern yourself with. Typically you create filesystems when installing FreeBSD and decide where to mount them, and then never change them unless you add a new disk.

It is entirely possible to have one large root filesystem, and not need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach, and one advantage.

Benefits of Multiple Filesystems

  • Different filesystems can have different mount options. For example, with careful planning, the root filesystem can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for you to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. Separating user-writable filesystems, such as /home, from other filesystems also allows them to be mounted nosuid; this option prevents the suid/guid bits on executables stored on the filesystem from taking effect, possibly improving security.

  • FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a filesystem, depending on how the filesystem is being used. So a filesystem that contains many small files that are written frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains fewer, larger files. By having one big filesystem this optimization breaks down.

  • FreeBSD's filesystems are very robust should you lose power. However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the structure of the filesystem. By splitting your data over multiple filesystems it is more likely that the system will still come up, making it easier for you to restore from backup as necessary.

Benefit of a Single Filesystem

  • Filesystems are a fixed size. If you create a filesystem when you install FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later discover that you need to make the partition bigger. This is not easily accomplished without backing up, recreating the filesystem with the new size, and then restoring the backed up data.

    Important: FreeBSD 4.4 and later versions feature the growfs(8) command, which makes it possible to increase the size of filesystem on the fly, removing this limitation.

Filesystems are contained in partitions. This does not have the same meaning as the earlier usage of the term partition in this chapter, because of FreeBSD's UNIX heritage. Each partition is identified by a letter from a through to h. Each partition can contain only one filesystem, which means that filesystems are often described by either their typical mount point in the filesystem hierarchy, or the letter of the partition they are contained in.

FreeBSD also uses disk space for swap space. Swap space provides FreeBSD with virtual memory. This allows your computer to behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When FreeBSD runs out of memory it moves some of the data that is not currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving something else out) when it needs it.

Some partitions have certain conventions associated with them.

Partition Convention
a Normally contains the root filesystem
b Normally contains swap space
c Normally the same size as the enclosing slice. This allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice (for example, a bad block scanner) to work on the c partition. You would not normally create a filesystem on this partition.
d Partition d used to have a special meaning associated with it, although that is now gone. To this day, some tools may operate oddly if told to work on partition d, so sysinstall will not normally create partition d.

Each partition-that-contains-a-filesystem is stored in what FreeBSD calls a slice. Slice is FreeBSD's term for what were earlier called partitions, and again, this is because of FreeBSD's UNIX background. Slices are numbered, starting at 1, through to 4.

Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an s, starting at 1. So ``da0s1'' is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only be four physical slices on a disk, but you can have logical slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. These extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so ``ad0s5'' is the first extended slice on the first IDE disk. These devices are used by file systems that expect to occupy a slice.

Slices, ``dangerously dedicated'' physical drives, and other drives contain partitions, which are represented as letters from a to h. This letter is appended to the device name, so ``da0a'' is the a partition on the first da drive, which is ``dangerously dedicated''. ``ad1s3e'' is the fifth partition in the third slice of the second IDE disk drive.

Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number, indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at 0. Common codes that you will see are listed in Table 3-1.

When referring to a partition FreeBSD requires that you also name the slice and disk that contains the partition, and when referring to a slice you should also refer to the disk name. Do this by listing the disk name, s, the slice number, and then the partition letter. Examples are shown in Example 3-1.

Example 3-2 shows a conceptual model of the disk layout that should help make things clearer.

In order to install FreeBSD you must first configure the disk slices, then create partitions within the slice you will use for FreeBSD, and then create a filesystem (or swap space) in each partition, and decide where that filesystem will be mounted.

Table 3-1. Disk Device Codes

Code Meaning
ad ATAPI (IDE) disk
da SCSI direct access disk
acd ATAPI (IDE) CDROM
cd SCSI CDROM
fd Floppy disk

Example 3-1. Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition Names

Name Meaning
ad0s1a The first partition (a) on the first slice (s1) on the first IDE disk (ad0).
da1s2e The fifth partition (e) on the second slice (s2) on the second SCSI disk (da1).

Example 3-2. Conceptual Model of a Disk

This diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first IDE disk attached to the system. Assume that the disk is 4 GB in size, and contains two 2 GB slices (DOS partitions). The first slice contains a DOS disk, C:, and the second slice contains a FreeBSD installation. This example FreeBSD installation has three partitions, and a swap partition.

The three partitions will each hold a filesystem. Partition a will be used for the root filesystem, e for the /var directory hierarchy, and f for the /usr directory hierarchy.

3.6. Mounting and Unmounting File Systems

The file system is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at /. /dev, /usr, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as /usr/local, and so on.

There are various reasons to house some of these directories on separate file systems. /var contains the directories log/, spool/, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root file system is not a good idea, so splitting /var from / is often favorable.

Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other file systems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM drives.

3.6.1. The fstab File

During the boot process, file systems listed in /etc/fstab are automatically mounted (unless they are listed with the noauto option).

The /etc/fstab file contains a list of lines of the following format:

device       /mount-point fstype     options      dumpfreq     passno
device

A device name (which should exist), as explained in Section 12.2.

mount-point

A directory (which should exist), on which to mount the file system.

fstype

The file system type to pass to mount(8). The default FreeBSD file system is ufs.

options

Either rw for read-write file systems, or ro for read-only file systems, followed by any other options that may be needed. A common option is noauto for file systems not normally mounted during the boot sequence. Other options are listed in the mount(8) manual page.

dumpfreq

This is used by dump(8) to determine which file systems require dumping. If the field is missing, a value of zero is assumed.

passno

This determines the order in which file systems should be checked. File systems that should be skipped should have their passno set to zero. The root file system (which needs to be checked before everything else) should have it's passno set to one, and other file systems' passno should be set to values greater than one. If more than one file systems have the same passno then fsck(8) will attempt to check file systems in parallel if possible.

3.6.2. The mount Command

The mount(8) command is what is ultimately used to mount file systems.

In its most basic form, you use:

# mount device mountpoint

There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the mount(8) manual page, but the most common are:

Mount Options

-a

Mount all the file systems listed in /etc/fstab. Except those marked as ``noauto'', excluded by the -t flag, or those that are already mounted.

-d

Do everything except for the actual mount system call. This option is useful in conjunction with the -v flag to determine what mount(8) is actually trying to do.

-f

Force the mount of an unclean file system (dangerous), or forces the revocation of write access when downgrading a file system's mount status from read-write to read-only.

-r

Mount the file system read-only. This is identical to using the rdonly argument to the -o option.

-t fstype

Mount the given file system as the given file system type, or mount only file systems of the given type, if given the -a option.

``ufs'' is the default file system type.

-u

Update mount options on the file system.

-v

Be verbose.

-w

Mount the file system read-write.

The -o option takes a comma-separated list of the options, including the following:

nodev

Do not interpret special devices on the file system. This is a useful security option.

noexec

Do not allow execution of binaries on this file system. This is also a useful security option.

nosuid

Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the file system. This is also a useful security option.

3.6.3. The umount Command

The umount(8) command takes, as a parameter, one of a mountpoint, a device name, or the -a or -A option.

All forms take -f to force unmounting, and -v for verbosity. Be warned that -f is not generally a good idea. Forcibly unmounting file systems might crash the computer or damage data on the file system.

-a and -A are used to unmount all mounted file systems, possibly modified by the file system types listed after -t. -A, however, does not attempt to unmount the root file system.

3.7. Processes

FreeBSD is a multi-tasking operating system. This means that it seems as though more than one program is running at once. Each program running at any one time is called a process. Every command you run will start at least one new process, and there are a number of system processes that run all the time, keeping the system functional.

Each process is uniquely identified by a number called a process ID, or PID, and, like files, each process also has one owner and group. The owner and group information is used to determine what files and devices the process can open, using the file permissions discussed earlier. Most processes also have a parent process. The parent process is the process that started them. For example, if you are typing commands to the shell then the shell is a process, and any commands you run are also processes. Each process you run in this way will have your shell as its parent process. The exception to this is a special process called init(8). init is always the first process, so its PID is always 1. init is started automatically by the kernel when FreeBSD starts.

Two commands are particularly useful to see the processes on the system, ps(1) and top(1). The ps command is used to show a static list of the currently running processes, and can show their PID, how much memory they are using, the command line they were started with, and so on. The top command displays all the running processes, and updates the display every few seconds, so that you can interactively see what your computer is doing.

By default, ps only shows you the commands that are running and are owned by you. For example:

% ps
  PID  TT  STAT      TIME COMMAND
  298  p0  Ss     0:01.10 tcsh
 7078  p0  S      2:40.88 xemacs mdoc.xsl (xemacs-21.1.14)
37393  p0  I      0:03.11 xemacs freebsd.dsl (xemacs-21.1.14)
48630  p0  S      2:50.89 /usr/local/lib/netscape-linux/navigator-linux-4.77.bi
48730  p0  IW     0:00.00 (dns helper) (navigator-linux-)
72210  p0  R+     0:00.00 ps
  390  p1  Is     0:01.14 tcsh
 7059  p2  Is+    1:36.18 /usr/local/bin/mutt -y
 6688  p3  IWs    0:00.00 tcsh
10735  p4  IWs    0:00.00 tcsh
20256  p5  IWs    0:00.00 tcsh
  262  v0  IWs    0:00.00 -tcsh (tcsh)
  270  v0  IW+    0:00.00 /bin/sh /usr/X11R6/bin/startx -- -bpp 16
  280  v0  IW+    0:00.00 xinit /home/nik/.xinitrc -- -bpp 16
  284  v0  IW     0:00.00 /bin/sh /home/nik/.xinitrc
  285  v0  S      0:38.45 /usr/X11R6/bin/sawfish

As you can see in this example, the output from ps(1) is organized into a number of columns. PID is the process ID discussed earlier. PIDs are assigned starting from 1, go up to 99999, and wrap around back to the beginning when you run out. The TT column shows the tty the program is running on, and can safely be ignored for the moment. STAT shows the program's state, and again, can be safely ignored. TIME is the amount of time the program has been running on the CPU--this is usually not the elapsed time since you started the program, as most programs spend a lot of time waiting for things to happen before they need to spend time on the CPU. Finally, COMMAND is the command line that was used to run the program.

ps(1) supports a number of different options to change the information that is displayed. One of the most useful sets is auxww. a displays information about all the running processes, not just your own. u displays the username of the process' owner, as well as memory usage. x displays information about daemon processes, and ww causes ps(1) to display the full command line, rather than truncating it once it gets too long to fit on the screen.

The output from top(1) is similar. A sample session looks like this:

% top
last pid: 72257;  load averages:  0.13,  0.09,  0.03    up 0+13:38:33  22:39:10
47 processes:  1 running, 46 sleeping
CPU states: 12.6% user,  0.0% nice,  7.8% system,  0.0% interrupt, 79.7% idle
Mem: 36M Active, 5256K Inact, 13M Wired, 6312K Cache, 15M Buf, 408K Free
Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse

  PID USERNAME PRI NICE  SIZE    RES STATE    TIME   WCPU    CPU COMMAND
72257 nik       28   0  1960K  1044K RUN      0:00 14.86%  1.42% top
 7078 nik        2   0 15280K 10960K select   2:54  0.88%  0.88% xemacs-21.1.14
  281 nik        2   0 18636K  7112K select   5:36  0.73%  0.73% XF86_SVGA
  296 nik        2   0  3240K  1644K select   0:12  0.05%  0.05% xterm
48630 nik        2   0 29816K  9148K select   3:18  0.00%  0.00% navigator-linu
  175 root       2   0   924K   252K select   1:41  0.00%  0.00% syslogd
 7059 nik        2   0  7260K  4644K poll     1:38  0.00%  0.00% mutt
...

The output is split into two sections. The header (the first five lines) shows the PID of the last process to run, the system load averages (which are a measure of how busy the system is), the system uptime (time since the last reboot) and the current time. The other figures in the header relate to how many processes are running (47 in this case), how much memory and swap space has been taken up, and how much time the system is spending in different CPU states.

Below that are a series of columns containing similar information to the output from ps(1). As before you can see the PID, the username, the amount of CPU time taken, and the command that was run. top(1) also defaults to showing you the amount of memory space taken by the process. This is split into two columns, one for total size, and one for resident size--total size is how much memory the application has needed, and the resident size is how much it is actually using at the moment. In this example you can see that Netscape® has required almost 30 MB of RAM, but is currently only using 9 MB.

top(1) automatically updates this display every two seconds; this can be changed with the s option.

3.8. Daemons, Signals, and Killing Processes

When you run an editor it is easy to control the editor, tell it to load files, and so on. You can do this because the editor provides facilities to do so, and because the editor is attached to a terminal. Some programs are not designed to be run with continuous user input, and so they disconnect from the terminal at the first opportunity. For example, a web server spends all day responding to web requests, it normally does not need any input from you. Programs that transport email from site to site are another example of this class of application.

We call these programs daemons. Daemons were characters in Greek mythology; neither good or evil, they were little attendant spirits that, by and large, did useful things for mankind. Much like the web servers and mail servers of today do useful things. This is why the BSD mascot has, for a long time, been the cheerful looking daemon with sneakers and a pitchfork.

There is a convention to name programs that normally run as daemons with a trailing ``d''. BIND is the Berkeley Internet Name Daemon (and the actual program that executes is called named), the Apache web server program is called httpd, the line printer spooling daemon is lpd and so on. This is a convention, not a hard and fast rule; for example, the main mail daemon for the Sendmail application is called sendmail, and not maild, as you might imagine.

Sometimes you will need to communicate with a daemon process. These communications are called signals, and you can communicate with a daemon (or with any other running process) by sending it a signal. There are a number of different signals that you can send--some of them have a specific meaning, others are interpreted by the application, and the application's documentation will tell you how that application interprets signals. You can only send a signal to a process that you own. If you send a signal to someone else's process with kill(1) or kill(2) permission will be denied. The exception to this is the root user, who can send signals to everyone's processes.

FreeBSD will also send applications signals in some cases. If an application is badly written, and tries to access memory that it is not supposed to, FreeBSD sends the process the Segmentation Violation signal (SIGSEGV). If an application has used the alarm(3) system call to be alerted after a period of time has elapsed then it will be sent the Alarm signal (SIGALRM), and so on.

Two signals can be used to stop a process, SIGTERM and SIGKILL. SIGTERM is the polite way to kill a process; the process can catch the signal, realize that you want it to shut down, close any log files it may have open, and generally finish whatever it is doing at the time before shutting down. In some cases a process may even ignore SIGTERM if it is in the middle of some task that can not be interrupted.

SIGKILL can not be ignored by a process. This is the ``I do not care what you are doing, stop right now'' signal. If you send SIGKILL to a process then FreeBSD will stop that process there and then[4].

The other signals you might want to use are SIGHUP, SIGUSR1, and SIGUSR2. These are general purpose signals, and different applications will do different things when they are sent.

Suppose that you have changed your web server's configuration file--you would like to tell the web server to re-read its configuration. You could stop and restart httpd, but this would result in a brief outage period on your web server, which may be undesirable. Most daemons are written to respond to the SIGHUP signal by re-reading their configuration file. So instead of killing and restarting httpd you would send it the SIGHUP signal. Because there is no standard way to respond to these signals, different daemons will have different behavior, so be sure and read the documentation for the daemon in question.

Signals are sent using the kill(1) command, as this example shows.

Sending a Signal to a Process

This example shows how to send a signal to inetd(8). The inetd configuration file is /etc/inetd.conf, and inetd will re-read this configuration file when it is sent SIGHUP.

  1. Find the process ID of the process you want to send the signal to. Do this using ps(1) and grep(1). The grep(1) command is used to search through output, looking for the string you specify. This command is run as a normal user, and inetd(8) is run as root, so the ax options must be given to ps(1).

    % ps -ax | grep inetd
  198  ??  IWs    0:00.00 inetd -wW

    So the inetd(8) PID is 198. In some cases the grep inetd command might also occur in this output. This is because of the way ps(1) has to find the list of running processes.

  2. Use kill(1) to send the signal. Because inetd(8) is being run by root you must use su(1) to become root first.

    % su
Password:
# /bin/kill -s HUP 198

    In common with most UNIX commands, kill(1) will not print any output if it is successful. If you send a signal to a process that you do not own then you will see ``kill: PID: Operation not permitted''. If you mistype the PID you will either send the signal to the wrong process, which could be bad, or, if you are lucky, you will have sent the signal to a PID that is not currently in use, and you will see ``kill: PID: No such process''.

    Why Use /bin/kill?: Many shells provide the kill command as a built in command; that is, the shell will send the signal directly, rather than running /bin/kill. This can be very useful, but different shells have a different syntax for specifying the name of the signal to send. Rather than try to learn all of them, it can be simpler just to use the /bin/kill ... command directly.

Sending other signals is very similar, just substitute TERM or KILL in the command line as necessary.

Important: Killing random process on the system can be a bad idea. In particular, init(8), process ID 1, is very special. Running /bin/kill -s KILL 1 is a quick way to shutdown your system. Always double check the arguments you run kill(1) with before you press Return.

3.9. Shells

In FreeBSD, a lot of everyday work is done in a command line interface called a shell. A shell's main job is to take commands from the input channel and execute them. A lot of shells also have built in functions to help everyday tasks such as file management, file globbing, command line editing, command macros, and environment variables. FreeBSD comes with a set of shells, such as sh, the Bourne Shell, and tcsh, the improved C-shell. Many other shells are available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection, such as zsh and bash.

Which shell do you use? It is really a matter of taste. If you are a C programmer you might feel more comfortable with a C-like shell such as tcsh. If you have come from Linux or are new to a UNIX command line interface you might try bash. The point is that each shell has unique properties that may or may not work with your preferred working environment, and that you have a choice of what shell to use.

One common feature in a shell is filename completion. Given the typing of the first few letters of a command or filename, you can usually have the shell automatically complete the rest of the command or filename by hitting the Tab key on the keyboard. Here is an example. Suppose you have two files called foobar and foo.bar. You want to delete foo.bar. So what you would type on the keyboard is: rm fo[Tab].[Tab].

The shell would print out rm foo[BEEP].bar.

The [BEEP] is the console bell, which is the shell telling me it was unable to totally complete the filename because there is more than one match. Both foobar and foo.bar start with fo, but it was able to complete to foo. If you type in ., then hit Tab again, the shell would be able to fill in the rest of the filename for you.

Another feature of the shell is the use of environment variables. Environment variables are a variable key pair stored in the shell's environment space. This space can be read by any program invoked by the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. Here is a list of common environment variables and what they mean:

Variable Description
USER Current logged in user's name.
PATH Colon separated list of directories to search for binaries.
DISPLAY Network name of the X11 display to connect to, if available.
SHELL The current shell.
TERM The name of the user's terminal. Used to determine the capabilities of the terminal.
TERMCAP Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform various terminal functions.
OSTYPE Type of operating system. e.g., FreeBSD.
MACHTYPE The CPU architecture that the system is running on.
EDITOR The user's preferred text editor.
PAGER The user's preferred text pager.
MANPATH Colon separated list of directories to search for manual pages.

Setting an environment variable differs somewhat from shell to shell. For example, in the C-Style shells such as tcsh and csh, you would use setenv to set environment variables. Under Bourne shells such as sh and bash, you would use export to set your current environment variables. For example, to set or modify the EDITOR environment variable, under csh or tcsh a command like this would set EDITOR to /usr/local/bin/emacs:

% setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs

Under Bourne shells:

% export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs"

You can also make most shells expand the environment variable by placing a $ character in front of it on the command line. For example, echo $TERM would print out whatever $TERM is set to, because the shell expands $TERM and passes it on to echo.

Shells treat a lot of special characters, called meta-characters as special representations of data. The most common one is the * character, which represents any number of characters in a filename. These special meta-characters can be used to do filename globbing. For example, typing in echo * is almost the same as typing in ls because the shell takes all the files that match * and puts them on the command line for echo to see.

To prevent the shell from interpreting these special characters, they can be escaped from the shell by putting a backslash (\) character in front of them. echo $TERM prints whatever your terminal is set to. echo \$TERM prints $TERM as is.

3.9.1. Changing Your Shell

The easiest way to change your shell is to use the chsh command. Running chsh will place you into the editor that is in your EDITOR environment variable; if it is not set, you will be placed in vi. Change the ``Shell:'' line accordingly.

You can also give chsh the -s option; this will set your shell for you, without requiring you to enter an editor. For example, if you wanted to change your shell to bash, the following should do the trick:

% chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash

Running chsh with no parameters and editing the shell from there would work also.

Note: The shell that you wish to use must be present in the /etc/shells file. If you have installed a shell from the ports collection, then this should have been done for you already. If you installed the shell by hand, you must do this.

For example, if you installed bash by hand and placed it into /usr/local/bin, you would want to:

# echo "/usr/local/bin/bash" >> /etc/shells

Then rerun chsh.

3.10. Text Editors

A lot of configuration in FreeBSD is done by editing text files. Because of this, it would be a good idea to become familiar with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as part of the base system, and many more are available in the ports collection.

The easiest and simplest editor to learn is an editor called ee, which stands for easy editor. To start ee, one would type at the command line ee filename where filename is the name of the file to be edited. For example, to edit /etc/rc.conf, type in ee /etc/rc.conf. Once inside of ee, all of the commands for manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the top of the display. The caret ^ character represents the Ctrl key on the keyboard, so ^e expands to the key combination Ctrl+e. To leave ee, hit the Esc key, then choose leave editor. The editor will prompt you to save any changes if the file has been modified.

FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors such as vi as part of the base system, while other editors, like emacs and vim, are part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection. These editors offer much more functionality and power at the expense of being a little more complicated to learn. However if you plan on doing a lot of text editing, learning a more powerful editor such as vim or emacs will save you much more time in the long run.

3.11. Devices and Device Nodes

A device is a term used mostly for hardware-related activities in a system, including disks, printers, graphics cards, and keyboards. When FreeBSD boots, the majority of what FreeBSD displays are devices being detected. You can look through the boot messages again by viewing /var/run/dmesg.boot.

For example, acd0 is the first IDE CDROM drive, while kbd0 represents the keyboard.

Most of these devices in a UNIX operating system must be accessed through special files called device nodes, which are located in the /dev directory.

3.11.1. Creating Device Nodes

When adding a new device to your system, or compiling in support for additional devices, you may need to create one or more device nodes for the new devices.

3.11.1.1. MAKEDEV Script

On systems without DEVFS (this concerns all FreeBSD versions before 5.0), device nodes are created using the MAKEDEV(8) script as shown below:

# cd /dev
# sh MAKEDEV ad1

This example would make the proper device nodes for the second IDE drive when installed.

3.11.1.2. DEVFS (DEVice File System)

The device file system, or DEVFS, provides access to kernel's device namespace in the global file system namespace. Instead of having to create and modify device nodes, DEVFS maintains this particular file system for you.

See the devfs(5) manual page for more information.

DEVFS is used by default in FreeBSD 5.0 and above.

3.12. Binary Formats

To understand why FreeBSD uses the ELF format, you must first know a little about the three currently ``dominant'' executable formats for UNIX:

  • a.out(5)

    The oldest and ``classic'' UNIX object format. It uses a short and compact header with a magic number at the beginning that is often used to characterize the format (see a.out(5) for more details). It contains three loaded segments: .text, .data, and .bss plus a symbol table and a string table.

  • COFF

    The SVR3 object format. The header now comprises a section table, so you can have more than just .text, .data, and .bss sections.

  • ELF

    The successor to COFF, featuring multiple sections and 32-bit or 64-bit possible values. One major drawback: ELF was also designed with the assumption that there would be only one ABI per system architecture. That assumption is actually quite incorrect, and not even in the commercial SYSV world (which has at least three ABIs: SVR4, Solaris, SCO) does it hold true.

    FreeBSD tries to work around this problem somewhat by providing a utility for branding a known ELF executable with information about the ABI it is compliant with. See the manual page for brandelf(1) for more information.

FreeBSD comes from the ``classic'' camp and used the a.out(5) format, a technology tried and proven through many generations of BSD releases, until the beginning of the 3.X branch. Though it was possible to build and run native ELF binaries (and kernels) on a FreeBSD system for some time before that, FreeBSD initially resisted the ``push'' to switch to ELF as the default format. Why? Well, when the Linux camp made their painful transition to ELF, it was not so much to flee the a.out executable format as it was their inflexible jump-table based shared library mechanism, which made the construction of shared libraries very difficult for vendors and developers alike. Since the ELF tools available offered a solution to the shared library problem and were generally seen as ``the way forward'' anyway, the migration cost was accepted as necessary and the transition made. FreeBSD's shared library mechanism is based more closely on Sun's SunOS™ style shared library mechanism and, as such, is very easy to use.

So, why are there so many different formats?

Back in the dim, dark past, there was simple hardware. This simple hardware supported a simple, small system. a.out was completely adequate for the job of representing binaries on this simple system (a PDP-11). As people ported UNIX from this simple system, they retained the a.out format because it was sufficient for the early ports of UNIX to architectures like the Motorola 68k, VAXen, etc.

Then some bright hardware engineer decided that if he could force software to do some sleazy tricks, then he would be able to shave a few gates off the design and allow his CPU core to run faster. While it was made to work with this new kind of hardware (known these days as RISC), a.out was ill-suited for this hardware, so many formats were developed to get to a better performance from this hardware than the limited, simple a.out format could offer. Things like COFF, ECOFF, and a few obscure others were invented and their limitations explored before things seemed to settle on ELF.

In addition, program sizes were getting huge and disks (and physical memory) were still relatively small so the concept of a shared library was born. The VM system also became more sophisticated. While each one of these advancements was done using the a.out format, its usefulness was stretched more and more with each new feature. In addition, people wanted to dynamically load things at run time, or to junk parts of their program after the init code had run to save in core memory and swap space. Languages became more sophisticated and people wanted code called before main automatically. Lots of hacks were done to the a.out format to allow all of these things to happen, and they basically worked for a time. In time, a.out was not up to handling all these problems without an ever increasing overhead in code and complexity. While ELF solved many of these problems, it would be painful to switch from the system that basically worked. So ELF had to wait until it was more painful to remain with a.out than it was to migrate to ELF.

However, as time passed, the build tools that FreeBSD derived their build tools from (the assembler and loader especially) evolved in two parallel trees. The FreeBSD tree added shared libraries and fixed some bugs. The GNU folks that originally write these programs rewrote them and added simpler support for building cross compilers, plugging in different formats at will, and so on. Since many people wanted to build cross compilers targeting FreeBSD, they were out of luck since the older sources that FreeBSD had for as and ld were not up to the task. The new GNU tools chain (binutils) does support cross compiling, ELF, shared libraries, C++ extensions, etc. In addition, many vendors are releasing ELF binaries, and it is a good thing for FreeBSD to run them.

ELF is more expressive than a.out and allows more extensibility in the base system. The ELF tools are better maintained, and offer cross compilation support, which is important to many people. ELF may be a little slower than a.out, but trying to measure it can be difficult. There are also numerous details that are different between the two in how they map pages, handle init code, etc. None of these are very important, but they are differences. In time support for a.out will be moved out of the GENERIC kernel, and eventually removed from the kernel once the need to run legacy a.out programs is past.

3.13. For More Information

3.13.1. Manual Pages

The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of manual pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic operation and various arguments. These manuals can be viewed with the man command. Use of the man command is simple:

% man command

command is the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about ls command type:

% man ls

The online manual is divided up into numbered sections:

  1. User commands.

  2. System calls and error numbers.

  3. Functions in the C libraries.

  4. Device drivers.

  5. File formats.

  6. Games and other diversions.

  7. Miscellaneous information.

  8. System maintenance and operation commands.

  9. Kernel developers.

In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the online manual. For example, there is a chmod user command and a chmod() system call. In this case, you can tell the man command which one you want by specifying the section:

% man 1 chmod

This will display the manual page for the user command chmod. References to a particular section of the online manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so chmod(1) refers to the chmod user command and chmod(2) refers to the system call.

This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command name? You can use man to search for keywords in the command descriptions by using the -k switch:

% man -k mail

With this command you will be presented with a list of commands that have the keyword ``mail'' in their descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using the apropos command.

So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in /usr/bin but do not have the faintest idea what most of them actually do? Simply do:

% cd /usr/bin
% man -f *

or

% cd /usr/bin
% whatis *

which does the same thing.

3.13.2. GNU Info Files

FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to manual pages, these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called info files which can be viewed with the info command or, if you installed emacs, the info mode of emacs.

To use the info(1) command, simply type:

% info

For a brief introduction, type h. For a quick command reference, type ?.

Chapter 4. 安装应用程序: Packages 和 Ports

4.1. 概要

FreeBSD 捆绑了很多系统工具作为基本系统的一部分。然而，在实际工作中，你可能仍需要安装额外的第三方应用程序。FreeBSD 提供了两种安装第三方应用程序的方法：FreeBSD ports collection 和二进制软件包（package）。无论用哪种方式，你都可以从本地媒体(设备)或直接通过网络来安装你喜欢的最新版本的应用程序。

读完这章，你将了解到:

  • 如何安装第三方的二进制软件包。

  • 如何从ports collection安装第三方软件。

  • 如何删除先前安装的软件包。

  • 如何改动ports collection里面的一些参数，定制软件使用。

  • 如何升级你的ports。

4.2. 软件安装预览

如果你以前使用过 UNIX 系统，那典型的第三方软件安装的步骤是像下面描述的：

  1. 下载这个软件，软件的发行版可能是源代码格式，或是一个二进制包。

  2. 解开软件(其中代表性的是用 compress(1), gzip(1), 或 bzip2(1) 压缩过的tar包)。

  3. 阅读相关文档，了解如何安装。 (多半一个文件名是INSTALL或README ,或在doc/ 目录下的一些文档)

  4. 如果软件是以源代码形式发布的，那就需要编译它。可能需要编辑一个 Makefile文件, 或运行 configure脚本，和其他的一些工作。

  5. 测试和安装软件。

如果一切顺利的话，就这么简单。如果你在安装一个软件包时发生一些错误，你可能需要编辑一下代码，以使它能正常工作。

你可以继续使用 ``传统的''方式安装软件。然而，FreeBSD提供了两种技术：packages和ports。就在写这篇文章的时候，已经有超过10,000个第三方的应用程序可以使用了。

对于一个应用程序包是一个可以下载的文件。这些包包含了预编译的拷贝，还有一些配置文件或文档。一个下载的包文件可以用FreeBSD的包管理命令来操作，例如 pkg_add(1)，pkg_delete(1), pkg_info(1)等等。

用这种方法，安装一个新的应用程序可以用一个简单的命令来完成。一个FreeBSD的port是一个可以自动从源代码编译成应用程序的文件集合。

记住，如果你自己来编译的话，需要执行很多步的操作（解压，补丁，编译，安装）。这些整理port的文件集合包含了系统需要完成这个工作的必需信息。你可以运行一些简单的命令，那些源代码就可以自动地下载，解开，打补丁，编译，直至安装完成

实际上，ports系统做出可以被pkg_add的程序包和不久就要讲到的其他包管理命令来安装的软件包。

Packages和ports是互相依赖的。假设你想安装一个依赖于已经安装的特定库的应用程序。应用程序和那个库都已经应用于FreeBSD ports和packages。如果你使用命令或ports系统来添加应用程序，两个都必须注意库是否被安装，如果没有，它会自动先安装库。

这里给出的两种技术是很相似的，你可能会奇怪为什么FreeBSD会弄出这两种技术。其实，Packages和ports都有它们自己的长处，使用哪一种完全取决于你自己的喜好。

Package的优点

  • 一个压缩的package通常要比一个压缩的包含源代码的应用程序小得多。

  • package不需要进行额外的编译。对于很大的应用程序如 Mozilla，KDE或GNOME，这点很重要，特别是在你的系统资源比较差的情况下。

  • package不需要你知道如何在FreeBSD上编译软件的详细过程。

Ports 的优点

  • package在编译时通常使用比较保守的选项，因为他们保证可能运行在大多数的系统上。 通过从port安装，你可以细微调整编译选项来产生适合于处理器的代码(针对于Pentium IV或AMD的Athlon CPU)。

  • 一些软件包已经把与它们相关的能做和不能做的事情的选项都编译进去了。例如， Apache 可能就配置了很多的选项。你从port中建立软件，不一定要接受默认的选项，你可以自己来设置。

    在一些例子中，一个软件有不同的配置存在多个package。 例如， Ghostscript存在 ghostscript package 和 ghostscript-nox11 package两个配置package, 这取决于你是否安装了X11服务器。 这样的调整对package是可能的，但如果一个应用程序有超过一个或两个不同的编译时间选项时，就不行了。

  • 一些软件的许可条件禁止采用二进制形式发行。它们必须带上源代码。

  • 一些人不信任二进制发行形式。至少有了源代码，(理论上)可以亲自阅读它，寻找潜在的问题。

  • 如果你要自己对软件打补丁，你就需要有源代码。

  • 一些人喜欢整天围着源代码转，所以他们喜欢亲自阅读源代码，修改源代码等等。

保持更新ports,订阅邮件列表 FreeBSD ports 邮件列表 和递交错误报告 FreeBSD ports bugs 邮件列表。

这章的其余部分将介绍如何使用packages和ports来安装和管理第三方软件。

4.3. 寻找你要的应用程序

B在你安装任何应用程序之前，需要知道你需要什么，那个应用程序叫什么。

FreeBSD中可用的应用程序正在不断地增长着。幸运的是，有许多方法可以找到你所需要的程序:

  • FreeBSD站点上拥有一个可以搜索到的当前所有可用的应用程序列表，在 http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/. 它分很多种类，你既可以通过程序的名称来搜索，也可以在分类中列出所有可用的应用程序。 (如果你知道名字), 也可以在分类中列出所有可用的应用程序。

  • Dan Langille 维护着网站 FreshPorts，在 http://www.FreshPorts.org/。 FreshPort时刻``追踪''着在ports中应用程序的变化。当有任何程序被升级时，他们就会发email提醒你。

  • 如果你不知道你想要的应用程序的名字，可以通过 (http://www.freshmeat.net/) 网站来寻找，如果应用程序被找到了，你可以回FreeBSD的主站去看一下这个应用程序是否已经被port进去了。

4.4. 使用package系统

Contributed by Chern Lee.

4.4.1. 安装一个package

你可以使用 pkg_add(1)工具从本地或通过网络从一台服务器上安装FreeBSD的package。

Example 4-1. 下载一个package然后在本地安装：

# ftp -a ftp2.FreeBSD.org
Connected to ftp2.FreeBSD.org.
220 ftp2.FreeBSD.org FTP server (Version 6.00LS) ready.
331 Guest login ok, send your email address as password.
230-
230-     This machine is in Vienna, VA, USA, hosted by Verio.
230-         Questions? E-mail freebsd@vienna.verio.net.
230-
230-
230 Guest login ok, access restrictions apply.
Remote system type is UNIX.
Using binary mode to transfer files.
ftp> cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/sysutils/
250 CWD command successful.
ftp> get lsof-4.56.4.tgz
local: lsof-4.56.4.tgz remote: lsof-4.56.4.tgz
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for 'lsof-4.56.4.tgz' (92375 bytes).
100% |**************************************************| 92375       00:00 ETA
226 Transfer complete.
92375 bytes received in 5.60 seconds (16.11 KB/s)
ftp> exit
# pkg_add lsof-4.56.4.tgz

如果你没有本地package的安装盘（如FreeBSD cdrom），可以执行 pkg_add(1)命令并加上-r选项。这将迫使程序自动决定目标文件的正确格式和版本，然后自动从一个FTP站点寻找和安装package。

# pkg_add -r lsof

上面的例子将下载正确的package，而不需要用户的干预就可以安装。 pkg_add(1) 使用 fetch(3) 下载文件， 可以使用多种环境变量，包含 FTP_PASSIVE_MODE, FTP_PROXY, and FTP_PASSWORD. 如果你使用FTP/HTTP 代理或在防火墙后面，你可能需要设置这些环境变量。详细的列表可以看 fetch(3) 。 上述例子中用lsof替代了 lsof-4.56.4. 当使用远程package的时候软件名字不包含版本号。 pkg_add(1) 将自动的找到这个软件最新的版本。

Package文件是以.tgz的格式发放的。你可以在ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/, 或在FreeBSD发行的 CD-ROM中找到。每一个FreeBSD发行CD都把package放在/packages 目录中。packages的设计与/usr/ports树很相似。每个分类都有它自己的目录 ，每个package也能在All目录下找到。

Package系统的目录结构是与port的目录结构相对应的；它们以package/port的形式互相协调工作。

4.4.2. 管理packages

pkg_info(1)是用来列出和描述已安装的各种package的工具。

# pkg_info
cvsup-16.1          A general network file distribution system optimized for CV
docbook-1.2         Meta-port for the different versions of the DocBook DTD
...

pkg_version(1)是一个用来统计所有安装的package版本的工具。它可以用来比较本地package的版本与ports目录中的当前版本是否一致。

# pkg_version
cvsup                       =
docbook                     =
...

在第二列的符号指出了安装版本的相关时间和本地ports目录树中可用的版本。

符号 含义
= 在本地ports树中与已安装的软件包相匹配。
< 已安装的版本要比在ports树中的版本旧
> 已安装的版本要比在ports树中的版本新(本地的port树可能没有更新)
? 已安装的软件包无法在ports索引中找到。(可能发生这种事情，举个例子，你早先安装的一个port从port树中移出或改名了)
* 软件包有很多版本。

4.4.3. 删除一个package

要删除先前安装的软件package，只要使用pkg_delete(1) 工具

# pkg_delete xchat-1.7.1

4.4.4. 其它

所有的package信息都保存在/var/db/pkg目录下。已安装文件的列表和每个package的内容和描述都能在这个目录的相关文件中找到。

4.5. 使用Ports Collection

面的章节提供了使用ports collection来安装或卸载程序的基本用法。

4.5.1. 获得Ports Collection

在你能使用ports之前, 你必须先获得ports collection--本质上是 /usr/ports目录下的一堆 Makefiles,补丁, 和描述文件。

在你安装FreeBSD系统的时候,Sysinstall会询问你是否需要安装ports collection. 如果你选择no，那你可以根据下面的指令来安装ports collection：

Sysinstall 方式

这种方式使用sysinstall再次手动安装ports collection.

  1. 用root用户, 运行 /stand/sysinstall命令，像下面显示的：

    # /stand/sysinstall

  2. 选择Configure, 按Enter。

  3. 选择Distributions, 按 Enter。

  4. 选择 ports, 按Space。

  5. 选择Exit, 按Enter。

  6. 选择你的安装介质，就像CDROM,FTP等等

  7. 选择Exit并按Enter。

  8. 按 X键退出sysinstall。

The alternative method to obtain and keep your ports collection up to date is by using CVSup. Look at the ports CVSup file, /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile. See Using CVSup (Section A.5) for more information on using CVSup and this file.

CVSup Method

This is a quick method for getting the ports collection using CVSup. If you want to keep your ports tree up to date, or learn more about CVSup, read the previously mentioned sections.

  1. Install the net/cvsup port. See CVSup Installation (Section A.5.2) for more details.

  2. As root, copy /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile to a new location, such as /root or your home directory.

  3. Edit ports-supfile.

  4. Change CHANGE_THIS.FreeBSD.org to a CVSup server near you. See CVSup Mirrors (Section A.5.7) for a complete listing of mirror sites.

  5. Run cvsup:

    # cvsup -g -L 2 /root/ports-supfile

  6. Running this command later will download and apply all the recent changes to your ports collection, except actually rebuilding the ports for your own system.

4.5.2. Installing Ports

The first thing that should be explained when it comes to the ports collection is what is actually meant by a ``skeleton''. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a minimal set of files that tell your FreeBSD system how to cleanly compile and install a program. Each port skeleton includes:

  • A Makefile. The Makefile contains various statements that specify how the application should be compiled and where it should be installed on your system.

  • A distinfo file. This file contains information about the files that must be downloaded to build the port and their checksums, to verify that files have not been corrupted during the download using md5(1).

  • A files directory. This directory contains patches to make the program compile and install on your FreeBSD system. Patches are basically small files that specify changes to particular files. They are in plain text format, and basically say ``Remove line 10'' or ``Change line 26 to this ...''. Patches are also known as ``diffs'' because they are generated by the diff(1) program.

    This directory may also contain other files used to build the port.

  • A pkg-descr file. This is a more detailed, often multiple-line, description of the program.

  • A pkg-plist file. This is a list of all the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the ports system what files to remove upon deinstallation.

Some ports have other files, such as pkg-message. The ports system uses these files to handle special situations. If you want more details on these files, and on ports in general, check out the FreeBSD Porter's Handbook.

Now that you have enough background information to know what the ports collection is used for, you are ready to install your first port. There are two ways this can be done, and each is explained below.

Before we get into that, however, you will need to choose a port to install. There are a few ways to do this, with the easiest method being the ports listing on the FreeBSD web site. You can browse through the ports listed there or use the search function on the site. Each port also includes a description so you can read a bit about each port before deciding to install it.

Another method is to use the whereis(1) command. Simply type whereis file, where file is the program you want to install. If it is found on your system, you will be told where it is, as follows:

# whereis lsof
lsof: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof

This tells us that lsof (a system utility) can be found in the /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof directory.

Yet another way to find a particular port is by using the ports collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the search feature, you will need to be in the /usr/ports directory. Once in that directory, run make search name=program-name where program-name is the name of the program you want to find. For example, if you were looking for lsof:

# cd /usr/ports
# make search name=lsof
Port:   lsof-4.56.4
Path:   /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
Info:   Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1))
Maint:  obrien@FreeBSD.org
Index:  sysutils
B-deps: 
R-deps:

The part of the output you want to pay particular attention to is the ``Path:'' line, since that tells you where to find the port. The other information provided is not needed in order to install the port, so it will not be covered here.

For more in-depth searching you can also use make search key=string where string is some text to search for. This searches port names, comments, descriptions and dependencies and can be used to find ports which relate to a particular subject if you don't know the name of the program you are looking for.

In both of these cases, the search string is case-insensitive. Searching for ``LSOF'' will yield the same results as searching for ``lsof''.

Note: You must be logged in as root to install ports.

Now that you have found a port you would like to install, you are ready to do the actual installation. The port includes instructions on how to build source code, but does not include the actual source code. You can get the source code from a CD-ROM or from the Internet. Source code is distributed in whatever manner the software author desires. Frequently this is a tarred and gzipped file, but it might be compressed with some other tool or even uncompressed. The program source code, whatever form it comes in, is called a ``distfile''. You can get the distfile from a CD-ROM or from the Internet.

4.5.2.1. Installing Ports from a CD-ROM

The FreeBSD Project's official CD-ROM images no longer include distfiles. They take up a lot of room that is better used for precompiled packages. CD-ROM products such as the FreeBSD PowerPak do include distfiles, and you can order these sets from a vendor such as the FreeBSD Mall. This section assumes you have such a FreeBSD CD-ROM set.

Place your FreeBSD CD-ROM in the drive. Mount it on /cdrom. (If you use a different mount point, the install will not work.) To begin, change to the directory for the port you want to install:

# cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof

Once inside the lsof directory, you will see the port skeleton. The next step is to compile, or ``build'', the port. This is done by simply typing make at the prompt. Once you have done so, you should see something like this:

# make
>> lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/.
>> Attempting to fetch from file:/cdrom/ports/distfiles/.
===>  Extracting for lsof-4.57
...
[extraction output snipped]
...
>> Checksum OK for lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz.
===>  Patching for lsof-4.57
===>  Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.57
===>  Configuring for lsof-4.57
...
[configure output snipped]
...
===>  Building for lsof-4.57
...
[compilation output snipped]
...
#

Notice that once the compile is complete you are returned to your prompt. The next step is to install the port. In order to install it, you simply need to tack one word onto the make command, and that word is install:

# make install
===>  Installing for lsof-4.57
...
[installation output snipped]
...
===>   Generating temporary packing list
===>   Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.57
===>   Registering installation for lsof-4.57
===>  SECURITY NOTE: 
      This port has installed the following binaries which execute with
      increased privileges.
#

Once you are returned to your prompt, you should be able to run the application you just installed. Since lsof is a program that runs with increased privileges, a security warning is shown. During the building and installation of ports, you should take heed of any other warnings that may appear.

Note: You can save an extra step by just running make install instead of make and make install as two separate steps.

Note: Some shells keep a cache of the commands that are available in the directories listed in the PATH environment variable, to speed up lookup operations for the executable file of these commands. If you are using one of these shells, you might have to use the rehash command after installing a port, before the newly installed commands can be used. This is true for both shells that are part of the base-system (such as tcsh) and shells that are available as ports (for instance, shells/zsh).

Note: Please be aware that the licenses of a few ports do not allow for inclusion on the CD-ROM. This could be because a registration form needs to be filled out before downloading or redistribution is not allowed, or for another reason. If you wish to install a port not included on the CD-ROM, you will need to be online in order to do so (see the next section).

4.5.2.2. Installing Ports from the Internet

As with the last section, this section makes an assumption that you have a working Internet connection. If you do not, you will need to perform the CD-ROM installation, or put a copy of the distfile into /usr/ports/distfiles manually.

Installing a port from the Internet is done exactly the same way as it would be if you were installing from a CD-ROM. The only difference between the two is that the distfile is downloaded from the Internet instead of read from the CD-ROM.

The steps involved are identical:

# make install
>> lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/.
>> Attempting to fetch from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/.
Receiving lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz (439860 bytes): 100%
439860 bytes transferred in 18.0 seconds (23.90 kBps)
===>  Extracting for lsof-4.57
...
[extraction output snipped]
...
>> Checksum OK for lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz.
===>  Patching for lsof-4.57
===>  Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.57
===>  Configuring for lsof-4.57
...
[configure output snipped]
...
===>  Building for lsof-4.57
...
[compilation output snipped]
...
===>  Installing for lsof-4.57
...
[installation output snipped]
...
===>   Generating temporary packing list
===>   Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.57
===>   Registering installation for lsof-4.57
===>  SECURITY NOTE: 
      This port has installed the following binaries which execute with
      increased privileges.
#

As you can see, the only difference is the line that tells you where the system is fetching the port distfile from.

The ports system uses fetch(1) to download the files, which honors various environment variables, including FTP_PASSIVE_MODE, FTP_PROXY, and FTP_PASSWORD. You may need to set one or more of these if you are behind a firewall, or need to use an FTP/HTTP proxy. See fetch(3) for the complete list.

For users which cannot be connected all the time, the make fetch option is provided. Just run this command at the top level directory (/usr/ports) and the required files will be downloaded for you. This command will also work in the lower level categories, for example: /usr/ports/net. Note that if a port depends on libraries or other ports this will not fetch the distfiles of those ports too. Replace fetch with fetch-recursive if you want to fetch all the dependencies of a port too.

Note: You can build all the ports in a category or as a whole by running make in the top level directory, just like the aforementioned make fetch method. This is dangerous, however, as some ports cannot co-exist. In other cases, some ports can install two different files with the same filename.

In some rare cases, users may need to acquire the tarballs from a site other than the MASTER_SITES (the location where files are downloaded from). You can override the MASTER_SITES option with the following command:

# cd /usr/ports/directory

# make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \
    ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch

In this example we change the MASTER_SITES option to ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/.

Note: Some ports allow (or even require) you to provide build options which can enable/disable parts of the application which are unneeded, certain security options, and other customizations. A few which come to mind are www/mozilla, security/gpgme, and mail/sylpheed-claws. A message will be displayed when options such as these are available.

4.5.2.3. Overriding the Default Ports Directories

Sometimes it is useful (or mandatory) to use a different distfiles and ports directory. The PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables can override the default directories. For example:

# make PORTSDIR=/usr/home/example/ports install

will compile the port in /usr/home/example/ports and install everything under /usr/local.

# make PREFIX=/usr/home/example/local install

will compile it in /usr/ports and install it in /usr/home/example/local.

And of course,

# make PORTSDIR=../ports PREFIX=../local install

will combine the two (it is too long to completely write on this page, but it should give you the general idea).

Alternatively, these variables can also be set as part of your environment. Read the manual page for your shell for instructions on doing so.

4.5.2.4. Dealing with imake

Some ports that use imake (a part of the X Windows System) do not work well with PREFIX, and will insist on installing under /usr/X11R6. Similarly, some Perl ports ignore PREFIX and install in the Perl tree. Making these ports respect PREFIX is a difficult or impossible job.

4.5.3. Removing Installed Ports

Now that you know how to install ports, you are probably wondering how to remove them, just in case you install one and later on decide that you installed the wrong port. We will remove our previous example (which was lsof for those of you not paying attention). As with installing ports, the first thing you must do is change to the port directory, /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof. After you change directories, you are ready to uninstall lsof. This is done with the make deinstall command:

# cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
# make deinstall
===>  Deinstalling for lsof-4.57

That was easy enough. You have removed lsof from your system. If you would like to reinstall it, you can do so by running make reinstall from the /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof directory.

The make deinstall and make reinstall sequence does not work once you have run make clean. If you want to deinstall a port after cleaning, use pkg_delete(1) as discussed in the Packages section of the Handbook.

4.5.4. Ports and Disk Space

Using the ports collection can defiantly eat up your disk space. For this reason you should always remember to clean up the work directories using the make clean option. This will remove the work directory after a port has been built, and installed. You can also remove the tar files from the distfiles directory, and remove the installed ports when their use has delimited.

Some users choose to limit the port categories by placing an entry in the refuse file. This way when they run the CVSup application, it will not download the files in that category.

4.5.5. Upgrading Ports

Keeping your ports up to date can be a tedious job. For instance, to upgrade a port you would go to the ports directory, build the port, deinstall the old port, install the new port, and then clean up after the build. Imagine doing that for five ports, tedious right? This was a large problem for system administrators to deal with, and now we have utilities which do this for us. For instance the sysutils/portupgrade utility will do everything for you! Just install it like you would any other port, using the make install clean command.

Now create a database with the pkgdb -F command. This will read the list of installed ports and create a database file in the /var/db/pkg directory. Now when you run portupgrade -a, it will read this and the ports INDEX file. Finally, portupgrade will begin to download, build, backup, install, and clean the ports which have been updated. Other utilities exist which will do this, check out the ports/sysutils directory and see what you come up with.

4.6. Post-installation Activities

After installing a new application you will normally want to read any documentation it may have included, edit any configuration files that are required, ensure that the application starts at boot time (if it is a daemon), and so on.

The exact steps you need to take to configure each application will obviously be different. However, if you have just installed a new application and are wondering ``What now?'' these tips might help:

  • Use pkg_info(1) to find out which files were installed, and where. For example, if you have just installed FooPackage version 1.0.0, then this command

    # pkg_info -L foopackage-1.0.0 | less

    will show all the files installed by the package. Pay special attention to files in man/ directories, which will be manual pages, etc/ directories, which will be configuration files, and doc/, which will be more comprehensive documentation.

    If you are not sure which version of the application was just installed, a command like this

    # pkg_info | grep -i foopackage

    will find all the installed packages that have foopackage in the package name. Replace foopackage in your command line as necessary.

  • Once you have identified where the application's manual pages have been installed, review them using man(1). Similarly, look over the sample configuration files, and any additional documentation that may have been provided.

  • If the application has a web site, check it for additional documentation, frequently asked questions, and so forth. If you are not sure of the web site address it may be listed in the output from

    # pkg_info foopackage-1.0.0

    A WWW: line, if present, should provide a URL for the application's web site.

  • Ports that should start at boot (such as Internet servers) will usually install a sample script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d. You should review this script for correctness and edit or rename it if needed. See Starting Services for more information.

4.7. Dealing with Broken Ports

If you come across a port that does not work for you, there are a few things you can do, including:

  1. Fix it! The Porter's Handbook includes detailed information on the ``Ports'' infrastructure so that you can fix the occasional broken port or even submit your own!

  2. Gripe--by email only! Send email to the maintainer of the port first. Type make maintainer or read the Makefile to find the maintainer's email address. Remember to include the name and version of the port (send the $FreeBSD: line from the Makefile) and the output leading up to the error when you email the maintainer. If you do not get a response from the maintainer, you can use send-pr(1) to submit a bug report.

  3. Grab the package from an FTP site near you. The ``master'' package collection is on ftp.FreeBSD.org in the packages directory, but be sure to check your local mirror first! These are more likely to work than trying to compile from source and are a lot faster as well. Use the pkg_add(1) program to install the package on your system.

Chapter 5. X Window 系统

5.1. 概述

FreeBSD 使用 XFree86 来为用户提供一个功能 强大的图形用户接口。XFree86 是一个开放源代码的 X Window 系统实现。这一章将介绍在 FreeBSD 系统上安装和 配置 XFree86。有关 XFree86 和它所支持的显示卡硬件的更多 信息，请查看 XFree86 网站。

在阅读完这一章后，你将会了解：

  • X视窗系统的不同组件，它们是如何协同工作的。

  • 如何安装和配置 XFree86.

  • 如何安装和使用不同的窗口管理器。

  • 如何在 XFree86中使用 TrueType® 字体。

  • 如何为你的系统设置图形登陆 (XDM).

在阅读这一章之前，你应该：

  • 知道如何安装额外的第三方应用程序(Chapter 4)。

5.2. 理解 X

对于那些熟悉其他图形环境，比如 Microsoft Windows 或者 Mac OS的用户来说，第一次使用 X 可能会感觉很惊讶。

你不需要了解各种 X 组件的所有细节和它们是如何互相影响的； 然而，了解一些基本的知识可以让你很好地利用X的强大功能。

5.2.1. 为什么要使用 X?

X 不是第一个为 UNIX而开发的视窗系统，但它是最流行的。 X 的原始开发团队在开发 X 之前就已经在另外一个视窗系统上工作了。 那个系统的名字叫做 ``W'' (就是 ``Window'')。X 只是罗马字母中 W 后面 的一个。

X 可以被叫做 ``X'', ``X Window 系统'', ``X11'', 和其他的一些。把 X11 称做 ``X Windows'' 可能会冒犯某些人； 查看 X(7) 可以了解更多的信息

5.2.2. X 客户机/服务器模型

X 一开始就是针对网络而设计的，所以 采用了 ``client-server''模型。在 X 模型中， ``X server''运行在有键盘，显示器，鼠标的计算机上。 服务器用来管理显示信息，处理来自键盘和鼠标的输入等。 每一个 X 应用程序 (比如 XTerm, 或者 Netscape) 就是一个 ``client''。 一个 client 给服务器发送信息，如 ``Please draw a window at these coordinates'', 然后服务器就返回处理信息，如 ``The user just clicked on the OK button''.

如果你在只有一台计算机的家里或小型办公环境中使用 FreeBSD，你就 需要在同一台计算机上运行 X server和 X client。然而，如果你有很多运行 FreeBSD 的机器，你可以在你的桌面计算机上运行 X server，而在比较高档 的服务器上运行X应用程序。在这样的环境中，X server 和 X client 之间的 通信就可以通过网络来进行。

这迷惑了一些人，因为 X 的术语和他们料想的有些不同。 他们以为 ``X server'' 是运行的功能强大的大型机上的，而 ``X client'' 是运行在他们桌面上的计算机上的。

记住，X server 是有键盘和显示器的那台计算机，而 X clients 是那些显示窗口的程序。

并不需要 client 和 server 都运行在同一种操作系统上，或甚至运行在 同一种类型的计算机上。在 Microsoft Windows or?Apple\'s Mac OS 上运行 一个 X server 也是可以的，在它们上面也有很多免费的和商业化的应用程序。

在 FreeBSD 上使用的 X server 叫做 XFree86, 是在遵循一个和 FreeBSD 的许可协议 相似的协议下可以免费使用的。针对 FreeBSD 的商业化 X servers 也是可用的。

5.2.3. 窗口管理器

X 的设计哲学很像 UNIX 的设计哲学， ``tools, not policy''。这就意味着 X 不会试图去规定任务应该如何 去完成，而是，只给用户提供一些工具，至于决定如何使用这些工具是用户自己的 事情。

这套哲学扩展了 X，它不会规定窗口在屏幕上应该是什么样子，要如何移动鼠标， 什么键应该用来切换窗体 (比如， Alt+Tab按键，在 Microsoft Windows 环境中的作用), 每个窗口的工具条应该 看起来像什么，他们是否应该有关闭按钮等等。

实际上，X 代表了一种叫做 ``Window Manager''的应用程序的职责。有很多这样的程序可用： AfterStep, Blackbox, ctwm, Enlightenment, fvwm, Sawfish, twm, Window Maker，等等。这些窗口管理器的每一个 都提供了不同的界面和观感；其中一些还支持 ``虚拟桌面''; 有一些允许你可以定制一些键来管理你的桌面； 一些有 ``Start'' 按钮，或者其他类似的设计；一些有 ``themeable''，通过安装一个 新的主题允许外观的完全改变。这些窗口管理器，还有很多其他的，都可以在 Ports Collection 的 x11-wm 分类目录里找到。

另外，KDE 和 GNOME 桌面环境都有他们自己的窗口管理器 与桌面集成。

每个窗口管理器也有不同的配置机制；针对绝大多数的配置任务，有些 GUI 工具需要你手工来写配置文件， 至少如 (sawfish) 需要一个用 Lisp 语言来写的配置 文件。

焦点策略: 窗口管理器的另一个特性是鼠标的 ``focus policy''。 每个窗口系统都需要有一个选择窗口的方法来接受键盘的输入信息，以及当前 哪个窗口处于可用状态。

你通常比较熟悉的是一个叫做 ``click-to-focus''的焦点策略。 这是 Microsoft Windows 使用的典型焦点策略，也就是你在一个窗口上点击 一下鼠标，这个窗口就处于当前可用的状态。

X不支持一些特殊的焦点策略。而是，窗口管理器控制着在什么时候哪个窗口 拥有焦点。不同的窗口管理器支持不同的焦点方案。它们都支持点击即获得焦点， 而且它们中的大多数都支持好几种方案。

最流行的焦点策略：

focus-follows-mouse

鼠标指示器下面的窗口就是获得焦点的窗口。这可以不是位于其他所有 窗口顶部的窗口。你可以通过将鼠标移到另一个窗口就可以来改变焦点，你 不需要在它上面点击。

sloppy-focus

这种方式是对focus-follows-mouse策略的一个小小扩展。对于 focus-follows-mouse，如果你在根窗口（或桌面背景）上移动鼠标，键盘的 输入也会丢失。对于sloppy-focus，只有当指针在键入一个新窗口时，窗口 焦点才会发生变化，当退出当前窗口时是不会变化的。

click-to-focus

当前窗口由鼠标点击来选择。窗口被``突出显示'' ， 出现在所有其他窗口的前面。即使指针被移向了另一个窗口，所有的键盘输入 仍会被这个窗口接收。

许多窗口管理器支持其他的策略，与这些相比又有些变化。你可以看具体 窗口管理器的文档。

5.2.4. 窗口部件

提供工具而非策略的X方法使得在每个应用程序屏幕上看到的窗口部件得到了 大大的扩展。

``Widget'' 只是针对用户接口中所有列举项目的一个术语，它 可以用某种方法来点击或操作；如按钮，复选框，单选按钮，图标，列表框等等。 Microsoft Windows把这些叫做``控件''。

Microsoft Windows 和苹果公司的 Mac OS 都有一个严格的窗口部件策略。 应用程序开发员被建议确保他们的应用程序共享一个普通的所见即所得的用户界面。 对于X，它并不要求一个特殊的图形风格或一套相结合的窗口部件集。

这样的结果是你不能期望 X 应用程序只拥有一个普通的所见即所得的界面。 有很多的流行的窗口部件集设置，包括来自于 MIT 的 Athena， Motif® (模仿 Microsoft Windows 的窗口风格), OpenLook, 和其他一些窗口部件集。

今天，绝大多数比较新的X应用程序将使用一个现代风格的窗口设计， 像 Qt, 用来设计 KDE, 或 GTK, 用来设计 GNOME。 在这样一种窗口系统下，UNIX 桌面的一些所见即所得特性作了一些收敛，以使 初学者感到更容易一些。

5.3. 安装 XFree86™

在安装 XFree86 之前，你需要决定安装哪个版本。 XFree86 3.X 是 XFree86 维护的一个分支。它非常稳定，而且支持很多的图形卡。然而，现在已经不对它进行更新了。 XFree86 4.X 是一个完全重新设计的分支，有很多新特性， 如更好的支持字体和 anti-aliasing。 不幸的是这个新的结构要求重新开发显示卡驱动程序，所以有些 3.X 支持的比较老的 显示卡 4.X 无法支持。因为这个分支所有新的显示卡的开发和支持已经完善， 所以现在 XFree86 4.X 是 FreeBSD 上 X Window 系统的 默认版本。

在安装过程中，FreeBSD 安装程序会提供给用户安装和配置 XFree86 4.X 的机会 (covered in Section 2.9.12)。要安装运行 XFree86 3.X, 等到 FreeBSD 基本系统安装完成之后， 再安装 XFree86。例如，从 Ports Collection 编译安装 XFree86 3.X ：

# cd /usr/ports/x11/XFree86
# make all install clean

另外，XFree86 可以直接使用 XFree86 网站提供的 FreeBSD 二进 制包来安装.用 pkg_add(1) 工具来从二进制软件包来安装 XFree86 4.X也是可行的。当使用 pkg_add(1) 的远程下载特性时，必须去掉软件包的版本号。 pkg_add(1) 会自动下载 应用程序的最新版本。所以下载安装 XFree86 4.X 软件包，可以简单的输入：

# pkg_add -r XFree86

你也可以使用 Ports Collection 来安装 XFree86 4.X，你只需要输入 下面的命令：

# cd /usr/ports/x11/XFree86-4
# make install clean

Note: 上面的例子将会安装完整的 XFree86 发行，包括服务器端，客户端，字体等等。 XFree86 4.X 不同部分的软件包和 Ports 也是可用的。

这一章余下的部分将会讲解如何配置 XFree86，和如何设置一个高效的桌面环境。

5.4. XFree86 的配置

Contributed by Christopher Shumway.

5.4.1. 开始之前

在配置 XFree86 4.X 之前， 你必须知道目标系统的下面一些信息：

  • 显示器规格

  • 显示卡的芯片类型

  • 显示卡的显存容量

显示器的规格可以被 XFree86 用来决定显示的分辨率和刷新率。 这些规格通常可以从显示器所带的文档中找到，也可以从生产商的网站找到。 需要知道两个数字范围：垂直刷新率和水平刷新率。

显示卡的芯片类型定义了 XFree86 使用什么驱动模块来驱动硬件。 对于绝大多数的硬件，都能被自动检测，但是在自动检测出错的时候了解 这些还是很有用处的。

显示卡的显存大小决定了目标系统的分辨率和颜色深度。这非常重要， 这样用户可以知道目标系统的限制。

5.4.2. 配置 XFree86 4.X

配置 XFree86 4.X 需要几步。 第一步是用 XFree86 的 -configure 选项建立一个初始化的配置文件。 . 作为超级用户，简单的运行：

# XFree86 -configure

这会在 /root 目录下生成一个叫做 XF86Config.new 的大致的 XFree86 配置文件(事实上使用的目录是由隐含的 环境变量 $HOME 决定的，这取决于你得到超级用户权利的方式)。 XFree86 程序会试图检测 系统上的图形显示卡并写入配置文件以便在目标系统上探测硬件时能够加载正确的 驱动程序。

下一步将测试当前的配置以检验 XFree86 是否能在当前系统的显示设备上正常工作。要完成这个任务，只需要这样做：

# XFree86 -xf86config XF86Config.new

如果用户看到一个黑灰的格子和一个X形的鼠标指针，那么配置就是成功 的。要退出测试，只要同时键入 Ctrl+Alt+Backspace。

Note: 如果鼠标不工作，请确保设备已经配置过。 请查看 Section 2.9.10 FreeBSD 安装一章

下面，调整 XF86Config.new 配置文件以适应个人的口味。用文本编辑器 emacs(1) 或 ee(1) 打开文件。要做的第一件事是为当前系统的显示器 添加频率。这些包括垂直和水平的刷新率。这些值可以被添加到 XF86Config.new 文件的 "Monitor" 部分：

Section "Monitor"
        Identifier   "Monitor0"
        VendorName   "Monitor Vendor"
        ModelName    "Monitor Model"
        HorizSync    30-107
        VertRefresh  48-120
EndSection

HorizSync 和 VertRefresh 关键字可能不存在于配置文件中。 如果他们不存在，就需要添加他们，正确的水平同步刷新率添加在 HorizSync 关键字后面，垂直的同步刷新率添加在 VertRefresh 关键字后面。在上面的例子中 已经添加了。

X 允许可能的显示器使用 DPMS（能源之星） 特性。 xset(1) 程序控制超时时间可以强制待机，挂起或者关机。 如果你希望启用你的显示器的 DPMS 特性， 你必须将下面一行添加到 monitor 部分：

        Option       "DPMS"

当 XF86Config.new 配置文件被编辑器打开时，需要选择默认的分辨率和颜色深度， 这是通过 "Screen" 部分来定义的：

Section "Screen"
        Identifier "Screen0"
        Device     "Card0"
        Monitor    "Monitor0"
        DefaultDepth 24
        SubSection "Display"
                Depth     24
                Modes     "1024x768"
        EndSubSection
EndSection

DefaultDepth 关键字描述了要运行的默认 颜色深度。这可以通过使用 XFree86(1) 的 -bpp 选项来取代。 Modes 关键字 描述了给定颜色深度下屏幕的分辨率。 注意目标系统的图形硬件只支持 VESA 标准模式。 在上面的例子中，默认的颜色深度是24位色。在这个颜色深度下， 可以接受的分辨率是1024x768。

最后，用户可以写入配置文件，然后使用这个配置文件测试一下。 如果一切正常，那配置文件需要被安装在 XFree86(1) 能找得到的 地方。典型的比如 /etc/X11/XF86Config 或 /usr/X11R6/etc/X11/XF86Config.

# cp XF86Config.new /etc/X11/XF86Config

一旦配置文件被放置在一个通用的位置，配置就完成了。为了用 startx(1) 启动 XFree86 4.X，需要安装 x11/wrapper port. XFree86 4.X 也可以用 xdm(1) 来启动。

Note: 还有一个图形的配置工具， xf86cfg(1)，是 XFree86 4.X 发行自带的。 它允许交互式的通过选择合适的驱动程序和设置来定义你的配置文件。 这个程序也可以在控制台下使用，使用命令 xf86cfg -textmode. 更多的细节，请查阅 xf86cfg(1) 手册页。

5.4.3. 高级配置主题

5.4.3.1. 配置 Intel® i810 显示芯片组

配置Intel i810芯片组的显示卡需要有针对 XFree86 的能够用来驱动显示卡的 agpgart AGP程序接口。 自从发行版本 4.8-RELEASE 和 5.0-RELEASE 发行以来 agp(4) 驱动程序就包含在 GENERIC 内核配置里面了。 在以前的发行版里，你必须要在你的内核配置文件里添加下面的一行：

device agp

然后重新编译一个新的内核。 或者，你可以在启动的时候使用 loader(8) 自动加载 agp.ko 内核模块。 简单的添加下面这行到 /boot/loader.conf 文件里：

agp_load="YES"

接下来，如果你正在运行 FreeBSD 4.X 或者更早的版本， 需要创建一个设备节点作为程序接口。 要创建 AGP 设备节点，在 /dev 下运行 MAKEDEV(8)：

# cd /dev # sh MAKEDEV agpgart

Note: FreeBSD 5.X 和以后的版本会使用 devfs(5) 来半透明的分配 设备节点，因此 MAKEDEV(8) 这一步是不必要的。

这也适用于其他的图形卡硬件配置。 注意如果系统没有将 agp(4) 驱动程序编译进内核，尝试用 kldload(8) 加载模块是无效的。 这个驱动程序必须编译进内核或者使用 /boot/loader.conf 在启动时加载进入内核。

如果你正在使用 XFree86 4.1.0 (或者以后的 版本) 并且出现了像 fbPictureInit 这样未解决的符号提示， 试着在 XFree86 配置文件里的 Driver "i810" 一行后面加入下面这行：

Option "NoDDC"

5.5. 在 XFree86 中使用字体

Contributed by Murray Stokely.

5.5.1. Type1 字体

XFree86 使用的默认字体不是很理想。 大型的字体显得参差不齐，看起来很不专业，在 Netscape 中，小字体也显得莫名其妙。 然而，有几个自由的，高质量的字体可以在 XFree86 中使用，version 3.X 或 version 4.X 都可以。例如，URW字体集合 (x11-fonts/urwfonts) 就包括了高质量的 标准 type1 字体 (Times Roman®, Helvetica®, Palatino® 和其他一些).在 Freefont 集合中 (x11-fonts/freefonts) 也包括更多的字体， 但它们中的绝大部分使用在图形软件中，如 Gimp，在屏幕字体中使用并不完美。另外， 只要花很少的功夫，可以将 XFree86 配置成能使用 TrueType 字体：请参见后面的 section on TrueType fonts 章节。

要安装上面的Type1字体，你只需要运行下面的命令：

# cd /usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts
# make install clean

Freefont 或其他的集合都是一样的。要告诉 X 服务器这些字体的存在， 你需要在 XF86Config 文件中添加一行 (XFree86 版本3在 /etc/ 下 版本4在 /etc/X11/ 下)：

FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW/"

或者，也可以在命令行运行：

% xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW
% xset fp rehash

这样会起作用，但是当 X 会话结束后就会丢失， 除非它被添加到启动文件 (~/.xinitrc 中， 针对一个寻常的 startx 会话，或者当你通过一个类似 XDM 的图形登陆管理器登陆时添加到 ~/.xsession 中)。 第三种方法是使用新的 XftConfig 文件： 查看 anti-aliasing 章节。

5.5.2. TrueType® 字体

XFree86 4.X 已经内建了对 TrueType 字体的支持。有两个不同的模块能够启用这个功能。 在这个例子中使用“freetype”这个模块，因为它与其他的字体描绘后端 是兼容的。要启用 freetype 模块，只需要将下面这行添加到 /etc/X11/XF86Config 文件的 "Module" 部分。

Load  "freetype"

对于 XFree86 3.3.X，需要额外的 TrueType 字体服务器。 Xfstt 通常被用于这个目的。 要安装 Xfstt， 只要简单的安装 port x11-servers/Xfstt.

现在，为 TrueType 字体创建一个目录 (比如， /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType) 然后把所有的 TrueType 字体拷贝到这个目录。记住你不能直接从 Macintosh® 计算机中提取 TrueType 字体； 能被 XFree86 使用的必须是 UNIX/DOS/Windows 格式的。 一旦你已经拷贝了这些文件到这个目录，使用 ttmkfdir 来创建一个 fonts.dir 文件，以便让X字体引擎知道 你已经安装了这些新文件。 ttmkfdir 可以在 FreeBSD Ports Collection x11-fonts/ttmkfdir 中找到。

# cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType
# ttmkfdir > fonts.dir

现在把 TrueType 字体目录添加到字体路径中。 这和上面 Type1 字体的步骤是一样的， 那就是，使用

% xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType
% xset fp rehash

或者把 FontPath 行添加到 XF86Config 文件中。

就是这样。现在 Netscape, Gimp, StarOffice™ 和其他所有的 X 应用程序 应该可以认出安装的 TrueType 字体。一些很小的字体(如在 Web 页面上高分辨率显示的文本) 和一些很大的字体(在 StarOffice 下) 现在看起来已经很好了。

5.5.3. Anti-Aliased 字体

Updated for XFree86 4.3 by Joe Marcus Clarke.

XFree86 从 4.0.2 开始支持 Anti-aliased 字体。 然而，字体配置在 XFree86 4.3.0 之前是非常繁琐的。 从 4.3.0 版本开始，在 /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/ 和 ~/.fonts/ 目录下的所有字体对支持 Xft 的应用程序 都可以自动的支持 anti-aliased。还不是所有的应用程序都支持 Xft，但是很多已经 有了 Xft 支持。 支持 Xft 的应用程序包括 Qt 2.3 以及更高版本(开发 KDE 桌面的工具包)， Gtk+ 2.0 以及更高版本(开发 GNOME 桌面的工具包)， 还有 Mozilla 1.2 以及更高版本。

要控制哪些字体是 anti-aliased，或者配置 anti-aliased 特性， 创建(或者编辑，如果文件已经存在的话)文件 /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf。Xft 字体系统的几个 高级特性都可以使用这个文件来调节； 这一部分只描述几种最简单的情况。要了解更多的细节，请查看 fonts-conf(5).

这个文件一定是 XML 格式的。注意确保所有的标签都完全的关闭掉。 这个文件用一个 DOCTYPE 定义的普通的 XML 头开始， 然后是 <fontconfig> 标签：

      <?xml version="1.0"?>
      <!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd">
      <fontconfig>

像前面所做的那样，在 /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/ 和 ~/.fonts/ 目录下的所有字体已经可以被支持 Xft 的 应用程序使用了。如果你想添加这两个目录以外的其他路径， 简单的添加下面这行到 /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf文件中：

<dir>/path/to/my/fonts</dir>

添加了新的字体，尤其是添加了新的字体目录后， 你应该运行下面的命令重建字体缓存：

# fc-cache -f

Anti-aliasing 会让字体边缘有些模糊，这样增加了非常小的文本的可读性， 然后从大文本字体中删除 ``staircases'' 但如果使用普通的文本，可能会引起眼疲劳。 要将字体大小范围控制在14号以下，包括这些行：

        <match target="font">
            <test name="size" compare="less">
                <double>14</double>
            </test>
            <edit name="antialias" mode="assign">
                <bool>false</bool>
            </edit>
        </match>

用 anti-aliasing 来间隔一些等宽字体也是不适当的。 这似乎是 KDE 的一个问题。 要修复这个问题需要确保每个字体之间的间距保持在100。 加入下面这些行：

       <match target="pattern" name="family">
           <test qual="any" name="family">
               <string>fixed</string>
           </test>
           <edit name="family" mode="assign">
               <string>mono</string>
           </edit>
        </match>
        <match target="pattern" name="family">
            <test qual="any" name="family">
                <string>console</string>
            </test>
            <edit name="family" mode="assign">
                <string>mono</string>
            </edit>
        </match>

(这里把其他普通的修复的字体作为 "mono")，然后加入：

         <match target="pattern" name="family">
             <test qual="any" name="family">
                 <string>mono</string>
             </test>
             <edit name="spacing" mode="assign">
                 <int>100</int>
             </edit>
         </match>

某些字体，比如 Helvetica，当 anti-aliased 的时候可能存在问题。 通常的表现为字体本身似乎被垂直的切成两半。 糟糕的时候，还可能导致应用程序比如 Mozilla 崩溃。 为了避免这样的现象，考虑添加下面几行到 local.conf文件里面：

         <match target="pattern" name="family">
             <test qual="any" name="family">
                 <string>Helvetica</string>
             </test>
             <edit name="family" mode="assign">
                 <string>sans-serif</string>
             </edit>
         </match>

一旦你完成对 local.conf 文件的编辑，确保你使用了 </fontconfig> 标签来结束文件。 不这样做将会导致你的更改被忽略。

XFree86 默认的字体集当使用 anti-aliasing 时并不是很合适。一个更好的默认字体集合可以在 x11-fonts/bitstream-vera port 下面找到。如果 /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf 文件不存在， 这个 port 将会安装它。如果文件已经存在了， 这个 port 将会创建 /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf-vera 文件。把这个文件的内容合并进 /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf， Bitstream 字体就会自动的取代默认的 XFree86 Serif，Sans Serif，和 Monospaced 字体。

最后，用户可以添加他们自己的设定通过他们个人的 .fonts.conf 文件。这样做，每个用户应该简单的 创建文件 ~/.fonts.conf。这个文件也必须是 XML 格式的。

最后一点：对于LCD屏幕，需要有子像素的取样。这个基本上 由（水平分割的）红，绿，蓝三色组成，用来提高水平刷新率，结果 可能很有趣。要启用这个，需要在 local.conf 文件的某个地方加入下面这行：

         <match target="font">
             <test qual="all" name="rgba">
                 <const>unknown</const>
             </test>
             <edit name="rgba" mode="assign">
                 <const>rgb</const>
             </edit>
         </match>

Note: 依赖于显示器的种类， rgb 可能需要被更改为 bgr, vrgb 或 vbgr：实验一下 看看那个更好。

Anti-aliasing 在你下次启动系统时就能用了。 然而，注意你的程序必须知道如何使用它。现在，Qt 工具包做到了， 所以整个 KDE 环境能够使用 anti-aliased 字体 (查看 KDE 上的 Section 5.7.3.2 了解细节)。 Gtk+ 和 GNOME 也可以被编译为使用 anti-aliasing 通过 ``Font'' capplet (查看 Section 5.7.1.3 了解细节)。默认情况下， Mozilla 1.2 以及更高版本都会自动的使用 anti-aliasing。要禁用它，使用 -DWITHOUT_XFT 选项 重新编译 Mozilla。

5.6. X 显示管理器

Contributed by Seth Kingsley.

5.6.1. 概要

X 显示管理器(XDM) 是一个X视窗系统用于进行登陆会话管理的可选项。 这个可以应用于多种情况下，包括小 ``X Terminals''， 桌面，大网络显示服务器。既然 X 视窗系统不受网络和协议的限制， 那对于通过网络连接起来的运行 X 客户端和服务器端的不同机器， 就会有很多的可配置项。 XDM 提供了一个选择要连接到哪个显示服务器的图形接口， 只要键入如登陆用户名和密码这样的验证信息。

你也可以把 XDM 想象成与 getty(8) 工具一样(see Section 17.3.2 for details)。为用户提供了同样功能。它可以完成系统的登陆任务， 然后为用户运行一个会话管理器 (通常是一个 X 视窗管理器)。接下来 XDM 就等待这个程序退出，发出信号用户已经登陆完成，应当退出屏幕。 这时， XDM 就可以为下一个登陆用户显示登陆和可选择屏幕。

5.6.2. 使用 XDM

XDM 精灵程序在 /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm 中。你可以在任何时候 用 root 来运行这个程序， 在本地机器上，它将启动管理X的画面。如果要 XDM 每次机器一启动就开始运行， 一个简单的办法是在 /etc/ttys 中加入一个记录。 有关这个文件的更多的格式和使用方法，可以看看 Section 17.3.2.1。在默认的 /etc/ttys 文件中用于运行 XDM 守护程序的一行是这样的：

ttyv8   "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon"  xterm   off secure

默认情况下，这个记录是关闭的，要启用它， 你需要把第5部分的 off 改为 on 然后按照 Section 17.3.2.2 的指导 重新启动 init(8)。第一部分，这个程序将管理的终端名称是 ttyv8。这意味着 XDM 将运行在第9个虚拟终端上。

5.6.3. 配置 XDM

XDM 的配置目录是在 /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm中。在这个目录中， 你会看到几个用来改变 XDM 行为和外观的文件。你会找到这些文件：

文件 描述
Xaccess 客户端授权规则。
Xresources 默认的X资源值。
Xservers 远程和本地显示管理列表。
Xsession 用于登陆的默认的会话脚本。
Xsetup_* 登陆之前用于加载应用程序的脚本。
xdm-config 运行在这台机器上的所有显示的全局配置。
xdm-errors 服务器程序产生的错误。
xdm-pid 当前运行的 XDM 的进程 ID。

当 XDM 运行时， 在这个目录中有几个脚本和程序可以用来设置桌面。 这些文件中的每一个的用法都将被简要地描述。 这些文件的更详细的语法和用法在 xdm(1) 中将有详细描述。

默认的配置是一个矩形的登陆窗口，上面有机器的名称， ``Login:'' 和 ``Password:''。如果你想设计你自己个性化的 XDM 屏幕，这是一个很好的起点。

5.6.3.1. Xaccess

连接到 XDM 的用来控制显示的协议 叫做 X 显示管理连接协议(XDMCP)。 这个文件是一个用来控制来自远程机器的XDMCP连接。默认的， 它允许任何客户端连接，但那没有用，除非 xdm-config 被修改成用于侦听远程连接。

5.6.3.2. Xresources

这是一个默认的用来显示选项和登陆屏幕的应用程序文件。这 就是你能够定制登陆程序的外观的地方。这个格式与 XFree86 文档中描述的默认应用 程序文件是一样的。

5.6.3.3. Xservers

这是一个选择者应当提供的作为可选的远程显示列表。

5.6.3.4. Xsession

这是一个用户登陆后针对 XDM 的默认会话脚本。通常，在 ~/.xsession 中每个用户将有一个可定制的会话脚本。

5.6.3.5. Xsetup_*

在显示选择者或登陆接口之前，这些将被自动运行。 这是一个每个显示都要用到的脚本，叫做 Xsetup_， 后面会跟一个本地显示的数字(比如 Xsetup_0)。典型的，这些脚本将在后台 (如 xconsole)运行一个或两个程序。

5.6.3.6. xdm-config

这个文件包含了在可用于每个显示的默认应用程序和这个安装管理的形式中的设置。

5.6.3.7. xdm-errors

这个文件包含了正在设法运行的 XDM 的X server输出。如果一个 XDM 正设法运行的显示由于某种原因被挂起， 那这是一个寻找错误信息的好地方。 这些信息会在每一个会话的基础上被写到用户的 ~/.xsession-errors 文件中。

5.6.4. 运行一个网络显示服务器

对于其他客户端来说，为了连接到显示服务器，你将必须编辑访问控制规则， 然后启用连接侦听。默认的这些被设置成比较保守的值。 要让XDM能侦听连接，先要在 xdm-config 文件中注释掉一行：

! SECURITY: do not listen for XDMCP or Chooser requests ! Comment out this line if you want to manage X terminals with xdm
DisplayManager.requestPort:     0

然后重新启动XDM。 记住默认应用程序文件的注释以``!'' 字母开始，不是``#''。 你需要设置严格的访问控制。看看在 Xaccess文件中的实例记录，可以参考 xdm(1) 的联机手册。

5.6.5. 替换 XDM

有几个替换默认 XDM程序的方案。它们是， 上一节已经描述过的KDM (与 KDE捆绑在一起)。 KDM 提供了许多视觉上的改进和局部的修饰， 同样能让用户在启动时能选择他们喜欢的窗口管理器。

5.7. 桌面环境

Contributed by Valentino Vaschetto.

这节描述了 FreeBSD 上用于 X 的不同桌面环境。 ``桌面环境'' 可能仅仅是一个简单的窗口管理器， 也可能是一个像 KDE 或者 GNOME这样的完整桌面应用程序套件。

5.7.1. GNOME

5.7.1.1. 有关 GNOME

GNOME 是一个用户界面友好的桌面环境， 能够使用户很容易地使用和配置他们的计算机。 GNOME 包括一个面板(用来启动应用程序和显示状态)， 一个桌面(存放数据和应用程序的地方)， 一套标准的桌面工具和应用程序， 和一套与其他人相互协同工作的协议集。 其他操作系统的用户在使用 GNOME提供的强大的图形驱动环境时会觉得很好。 更多的关于 FreeBSD 上 GNOME 的信息 可以在 FreeBSD GNOME Project的网页上找到。

5.7.1.2. 安装 GNOME

安装 GNOME的最简单的方法是 Section 2.9.13 第 2 章描述的在FreeBSD安装过程中通过 ``Desktop Configuration''菜单来进行。 它们也可以很容易地从一个package或ports collection安装：

要从网络安装GNOME， 只要键入：

# pkg_add -r gnome2

从源代码编译GNOME，可以使用 ports树：

# cd /usr/ports/x11/gnome2 # make install clean

一旦GNOME被安装好， X Server必须被告知启动 GNOME以代替默认的窗口管理器。 如果在适当的位置已经定制好了文件.xinitrc， 简单地将启动当前窗口管理器的那行替换为 /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session。 如果对配置文件不想添加任何特殊改动，只需简单地键入：

% echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" > ~/.xinitrc

接着，键入startx， GNOME桌面环境就启动了。

Note: 如果已经使用了一个像 XDM这样的显示管理器，就不能这样做。 而是，用同样的命令创建一个可执行文件.xsession。 要这样做，需要先编辑文件，然后用 /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session替换已存在的窗口管理命令：

% echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession % echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" >> ~/.xsession % chmod +x ~/.xsession

另一个选项是在登陆时配置显示管理器允许你选择窗口管理器；有关 KDE 细节 会解释如何使用kdm， KDE显示管理器来做。

5.7.1.3. 在GNOME上使用Anti-aliased字体

从 4.0.2 版本开始，XFree86 就通过他的``RENDER''扩展来支持 anti-aliasing。 Gtk+ 2.0 以及更高的版本(被 GNOME使用的工具包)可以使用这个功能。 配置 anti-aliasing 在 Section 5.5.3描述。所以，使用最近的软件， anti-aliasing 可以应用在 GNOME桌面环境中。只需要依次选择 应用程序->桌面首选项->字体，然后选上 最佳形状， 最佳对比度，或者 像素圆滑(LCD)。对于 Gtk+ 应用程序，它们不是 GNOME 桌面的一部分，在启动程序前需要设置 环境变量GDK_USE_XFT的值为 1。

5.7.2. KDE

5.7.2.1. 有关 KDE

KDE 是一个容易使用的现代桌面环境。 KDE 有很多很好的特性：

  • 一个美丽的现代的桌面。

  • 一个集合了完美网络环境的桌面。

  • 一个集成的允许你方便，高效地帮助你使用 KDE 桌面和它的应用程序的帮助系统。

  • 所有的KDE应用程序具有一致的所见即所得界面。

  • 标准的菜单和工具栏，键盘布局，颜色配置等。

  • 国际化：KDE 可以使用超过40种语言。

  • 集中的一致化的桌面驱动配置。

  • 许多有用的 KDE应用程序。

KDE 有一个以 KDE 的 ``KParts'' 技术为基础的办公套件。 它包括电子表格，幻灯片，日程管理和新闻等软件。 KDE 也包含一个与当前 UNIX 系统上其他Web浏览器相竞争的叫做 Konqueror 的浏览器。 systems. 关于 KDE 的更多信息可以在 KDE 网站上找到。 KDE 上关于 FreeBSD 的特定信息和资源，可以参考 FreeBSD-KDE team的网站。

5.7.2.2. 安装 KDE

与 GNOME 或其他桌面环境一样，安装 KDE 的最容易的方法是通过 Section 2.9.13 第 2 章所描绘的 FreeBSD 安装过程的 ``Desktop Configuration'' 菜单来安装。 另外，它也可以很容易地从packages或ports collection安装：

要从网络安装 KDE 只需要：

# pkg_add -r kde

pkg_add(1) 就回自动的下在最新版本的应用程序。

要从源代码编译 KDE， 可以使用 port 树：

# cd /usr/ports/x11/kde3 # make install clean

KDE 安装完成后， X server必须被告知启动这个应用程序以代替默认的窗口管理器。 这可以通过编辑 .xinitrc 文件来完成：

% echo "exec startkde" > ~/.xinitrc

现在，无论你什么时候用 startx进入 X 视窗系统， KDE 就将成为你的桌面环境。

如果使用一个像 xdm这样的显示管理器， 那配置文件可能有点不同。需要编辑一个 .xsession 文件，有关 kdm 的用法会在这章的后面介绍。

5.7.3. 有关 KDE 的更多细节

现在 KDE 已经被安装在系统中了。 通过帮助页面或点击多个菜单可以发现很多东西。 Windows 或 Mac® 用户会有回到家的感觉。

有关 KDE 的最好的参考资料是 它的在线文档。KDE 拥有它自己的 web 浏览器 Konqueror， 还有很多其他的应用程序和丰富文档。 这节的余下部分将讨论一些很难用走马观花的方法来学习的技术项目。

5.7.3.1. KDE 显示管理器

一个多用户系统的系统管理员可能希望给用户提供一个图形化的登陆界面， 像前面描述的一样，可以使用 xdm。 然而， KDE 提供了另一种选择， kdm， 它看起来很吸引人，还包含很多登陆选项。 特别的，用户可以很容易地(通过一个菜单) 选择登陆后使用哪个桌面环境 (KDE， GNOME或其他)。

首先，以 root 用户身份运行 KDE 控制面板，kcontrol。 通常情况下，以 root 身份运行 X 环境是很不安全的。 你应当以普通用户来使用窗口管理器， 打开一个终端窗口(例如 xterm 或者 KDE 的 konsole)，用 su 来切换成 root(这个用户必须首先在 /etc/group 的 wheel 组里)，然后再键入 kcontrol。

点击左边标记 系统的图标，然后选择登陆管理器 。在右面，有几个配置选项， KDE 手册会解释的更加详细一些。 点击右边的会话。 点击新类型来添加几个窗口管理器或桌面环境。 这些只是标签，所以它们用 KDE或 GNOME要比用 startkde或者 gnome-session来得好。 也可以是failsafe。

也可以用同样方法定制其他菜单，它们主要是起修饰和自我解释用的。 完成之后，键入Apply按钮，退出控制中心。

要确信kdm理解标签 (KDE， GNOME等)的意思，需要编辑一些 xdm用的文件。

Note: 在KDE 2.2中，这有些变化： kdm现在使用它自己的配置文件。 请看看KDE 2.2的文档。

在一个终端窗口，作为root用户，要编辑 /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsession文件， 中间有一部分是这样的：

case $# in
1)
        case $1 in
        failsafe)
                exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0
                ;;
        esac
esac

需要在这部分加几行。 假定使用的标签是``KDE''和 ``GNOME''， 就像下面这样：

case $# in
1)
        case $1 in
        kde)
                exec /usr/local/bin/startkde
                ;;
        GNOME)
                exec /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session
                ;;
        failsafe)
                exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0
                ;;
        esac
esac

为了加上KDE 的登陆桌面背景， 需要在 /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsetup_0中加入下面这行：

/usr/local/bin/kdmdesktop

现在，确信kdm在 /etc/ttys中列出来了，并且将被启动。 要这样做，只要跟着先前有关 xdm用法，用 /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm 程序的用法替换/usr/local/bin/kdm的用法就可以了。

5.7.3.2. Anti-aliased字体

从4.0.2版本开始， XFree86就可以通过它的 ``RENDER''扩展来支持anti-aliasing，从2.3版本开始， Qt (被KDE使用的工具包)也支持 这个扩展。在有关anti-aliasing X11字体的Section 5.5.3节描述到了如何配置这些。 所以，对于现在的软件，anti-aliasing也可以用在 KDE桌面上。只需要到KDE 菜单，到 Preferences->Look and Feel->Fonts，然后点击 Use Anti-Aliasing for Fonts and Icons。 对于一个不是 KDE的一部分的Qt应用程序，环境变量 QT_XFT需要在启动程序前被设置成true。

5.7.4. XFce

5.7.4.1. 有关XFce

XFce是以被GNOME 使用的GTK工具包为基础的桌面环境， 但是更加轻巧，适合于那些需要一个易于使用和配置并且简单而高效的桌面的人。 看起来，它非常像使用在商业UNIX系统上的 CDE环境。 XFce的主要特性有下面这些：

  • 一个简单，易于使用的桌面。

  • 完全通过鼠标的拖动和按键来控制等。

  • 与CDE 相似的主面板，菜单，applets和应用launchers。

  • 集成的窗口管理器，文件管理器，声音管理器， GNOME应用模块，和其他一些。

  • 可配置的主题界面。(因为它使用GTK)

  • 快速，轻便，高效：对于比较老的/旧的机器或带有很少内存的机器仍然很理想。

更多有关XFce 的信息可以参考XFce 网站。

5.7.4.2. 安装XFce

有一个二进制的XFce 软件包存在(在写作的时候)。要安装的话，执行下面的命令：

# pkg_add -r xfce4

另外，要从源代码建立，使用ports collection：

# cd /usr/ports/x11-wm/xfce4
# make install clean

现在，要告诉X服务器在下次X启动时执行 XFce。 只要执行下面的命令：

% echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce" > ~/.xinitrc

接下来就是启动X， XFce将成为你的桌面。 与以前一样，如果使用像 xdm这样的显示管理器，需要创建一个 .xsession文件，就像有关 GNOME的那节描述的， 使用/usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce 命令，或者，配置显示管理器允许在启动时选择一个桌面， 就像有关kdm的那节描述的。

II. 系统管理

FreeBSD手册中其余章节的内容都是关于系统管理。每一章节都从描述开始，由浅入深。

这些章节被设计成很多相对完整的部分，如果你需要了解某部分内容，直接阅读这部分内容即可，无需按照顺序，也不用在你使用FreeBSD的时候需要先读一遍。

Table of Contents
6. 设置和调整
7. FreeBSD引导过程
8. 用户和基本的帐户管理
9. 配置FreeBSD的内核
10. 安全
11. Printing
12. Storage
13. The Vinum Volume Manager
14. 本地化－I18N/L10N使用和设置
15. 桌面应用
16. 多媒体
17. Serial Communications
18. PPP 和 SLIP
19. Advanced Networking
20. 电子邮件
21. 最前沿
22. Linux二进制兼容模式

Chapter 6. 设置和调整

Written by Chern Lee. Based on a tutorial written by Mike Smith. Also based on tuning(7) written by Matt Dillon.

6.1. 大纲

FreeBSD 的一个重要问题是系统配置。正确地配置系统能充分地减少以后维护和升级系统所需的工作量。这章将解释一些 FreeBSD 的配置过程，包括一些可以调整 FreeBSD 系统的一些参数。

阅读完本章之后你将会知道：

  • 怎样有效的利用文件系统和交换分区。

  • rc.conf 的基本设置和 /usr/local/etc/rc.d 启动体系。

  • 怎样设置和测试一块网卡。

  • 怎样在你的网络设备上设置虚拟逐级。

  • 怎样使用 /etc 下的各配置文件。

  • 怎样使用 sysctl 来调整 FreeBSD 系统变量。

  • 怎样调整磁盘性能和修改内核限制。

在阅读本章之前，你应该了解：

  • 了解 UNIX 和 FreeBSD 的基础知识(Chapter 3)。

  • 熟悉如何与 FreeBSD 的源代码保持同步 (Chapter 21)和内核配置编译的基础知识 (Chapter 9)。

6.2. 初步配置

6.2.1. 分区规划

6.2.1.1. 基本分区

当使用 disklabel(8) 或者 sysinstall(8) 来分割你的文件系统的时候， 要记住硬盘驱动器外磁道传输数据要比从内磁道传输数据快。因此应该将小的和经常访问的文件系统放在驱动器靠外的位置，一些大的分区比如 /usr 应该放在比较靠里的位置。以类似这样的顺序建立分区是一个不错的主意：root， swap，/var，/usr。

/var 的大小能反映你的机器使用情况。它用来存储邮件，日志文件和打印队列缓存，特别是邮箱和日志文件可能会达到无法预料的大小，这主要取决于在你的系统上有多少用户和你的日志文件可以保存多长时间。一般大多数用户不需要一个G以上的空间，但要记住 /var/tmp 应该足够大来以便存储一些 packages.

/usr 分区存储很多用来系统运行所需要的文件例如 ports(7) (建议这样做) 和源代码 (可选的)。安装的时候这两项都是可选的。这个分区至少要保留两个G的可用空间。

当选择分区大小的时候，记住保留一些空间。用完了一个分区的空间而在另一个分区上还有很多，可能会导致出现一些错误。

Note: 一些用户会发现 sysinstall(8) 的Auto-defaults 自动分区有时会分配给 /var 和 / 较小的分区空间。分区应该精确一些并且大一些。

6.2.1.2. 交换分区

一般来讲，交换分区应该大约是系统内存 (RAM) 的两倍。例如，如果机器有 128M 内存，交换文件应该是 256M。较小内存的系统可以通过多一点地交换分区来提升性能。不建议小于 256 兆的交换分区，并且扩充你的内存应该被考虑一下。当交换分区最少是主内存的两倍的时候，内核的 VM （虚拟内存）页面调度算法可以将性能调整到最好。如果你给机器添加更多内存，配置太小的交换分区会导致 VM 页面扫描的代码效率低下。

在使用多块SCSI磁盘（或者不同控制器上的IDE磁盘）的大系统上，建议在每个驱动器上建立交换分区（直到四个驱动器）。交换分区应该大约一样大小。内核可以使用任意大小，但内部数据结构则是最大交换分区的4倍。保持交换分区同样的大小，可以允许内核最佳地调度交换空间来访问磁盘。即使不太使用，分配大的交换分区也是好的，在被迫重启之前它可以让你更容易的从一个失败的程序中恢复过来。

6.2.1.3. 为什么要分区？

一些用户认为一个单独的大分区将会很好，但是有很多原因会证明为什么这是个坏主意。首先，每个分区有不同的分区特性，因此分开可以让文件系统调整它们。例如，根系统和 /usr 一般只是读取，写入很少。很多读写频繁的被放在 /var 和 /var/tmp中。

适当的划分一个系统，用比较小的分区方法，那些以写为主的分区将不会比以读为主的分区付出更高的代价。将以写为主的分区放在靠近磁盘的边缘，例如放在实际的大硬盘的前面代替放在分区表的后面，将会提高你需要的分区的I/O性能。现在可能也需要在比较大的分区上有很好的I/O性能，把他们移动到磁盘外围不会带来多大的性能提升，反而把 /var 移到外面会有很好的效果。最后涉及到安全问题。一个主要是只读的小的、整洁的根分区可以提高从一个严重的系统崩溃中恢复过来的机会。

6.3. 核心配置

系统的配置信息主要位于 /etc/rc.conf。这个文件包含了配置信息很大的一部分，主要在系统启动的时候来配置系统，这个名字直接说明了这点；它也是 rc* 文件的配置信息。

系统管理员应该在 rc.conf 文件中建立记录来覆盖 /etc/defaults/rc.conf 中的默认设置。这个默认文件不应该被逐字的拷贝到 /etc —— 它包含的是默认值而不是一个例子。所有特定的改变应该在 rc.conf 中。

为了降低管理成本，有很多策略可以应用在成群的应用程序中来从系统指定的配置中分离site-wide配置。建议的方法是将site-wide配置放在另一个文件中，例如 /etc/rc.conf.site，并且把它包含进然后把这个文件包括进只包含系统指定信息的 /etc/rc.conf。

由于 rc.conf 可以被 sh(1) 阅读，所以达到这个目的很简单，例如：

  • rc.conf:

       . rc.conf.site
    hostname="node15.example.com"
    network_interfaces="fxp0 lo0"
    ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1"

  • rc.conf.site:

       defaultrouter="10.1.1.254"
    saver="daemon"
    blanktime="100"

rc.conf.site 文件会被分发给每一个使用 rsync 或相似程序的系统，同时 rc.conf 文件仍然保持独立。

使用 sysinstall(8) 或者 make world 来升级系统不会覆盖 rc.conf 文件， 所以系统配置信息不会丢失。

6.4. 应用程序配置

典型的，被安装的应用程序有他自己的配置文件、语法等等。从基本系统中分开他们是很重要的以至于他们可以容易的被 package 管理工具定位和管理

一般来说，这些文件被安装在 /usr/local/etc。这个例子中，一个应用程序有很多配置文件并且创建了一个子目录来存放他们。

通常，当一个 port 或者 package 被安装的时候，配置文件示例也同样被安装了。它们通常用 .default 的后缀来标识。如果不存在这个应用程序的配置文件，它们会通过拷贝 .default 文件来创建。

例如，看一下这个目下的内容 /usr/local/etc/apache：

-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   2184 May 20  1998 access.conf
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   2184 May 20  1998 access.conf.default
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   9555 May 20  1998 httpd.conf
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   9555 May 20  1998 httpd.conf.default
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel  12205 May 20  1998 magic
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel  12205 May 20  1998 magic.default
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   2700 May 20  1998 mime.types
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   2700 May 20  1998 mime.types.default
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   7980 May 20  1998 srm.conf
-rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel   7933 May 20  1998 srm.conf.default

文件大小显示了只有 srm.conf 改变了。以后 Apache 的升级就不会改变这个文件。

6.5. 启动服务

一个系统提供很多服务是很普通的。这些可以通过不同的方式启动，每种都有其各自的优势。

通过 port 或者 packages 安装的软件通常会放一个系统启动的时候调用 start 参数和系统关闭的时候调用 stop 参数的脚本在 /usr/local/etc/rc.d。这是我们建议的一种用或者期待用root身份启动系统服务的一种方法。这些脚本作为安装的 package 的一部分被注册，并且在删除 package 的时候被删除。

一个普通的启动脚本在 /usr/local/etc/rc.d，像这样：

#!/bin/sh
echo -n ' FooBar'

case "$1" in
start)
        /usr/local/bin/foobar
        ;;
stop)
        kill -9 `cat /var/run/foobar.pid`
        ;;
*)
        echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" >&2
        exit 64
        ;;
esac

exit 0

FreeBSD 的启动脚本在 /usr/local/etc/rc.d，它有以 .sh 结尾并且对 root 有执行权限。这些脚本在启动的时候用 start 选项被调用并且在系统关闭的时候调用 stop 来完成他们的任务。所以如果你想让上面的脚本示例在启动的时候运行，你应该在 /usr/local/etc/rc.d 中把他存成叫做 FooBar.sh 的名字并且确认他是可执行的。你可以像下面那样用 chmod(1) 让一个 shell 脚本成为可执行的脚本：

# chmod 755 FooBar.sh

当一个连接被一个适当的端口接收到的时候，一些服务会被 inetd(8) 调用。这对邮件处理服务来讲是很普通的（例如POP and IMAP 等等）。这些服务可以通过编辑 /etc/inetd.conf 来启用。可以在编辑的时候查看 inetd(8) 来了解这个文件的细节。

一些额外的系统服务也许不会隐藏在 /etc/rc.conf中。传统上他们使用在 /etc/rc.local 中的命令来调用。类似于在 FreeBSD 3.1 中没有默认的 /etc/rc.local；如果它被管理员创建，通常它也一样以一般的形式得到执行。注意 rc.local 通常被作为是最后一个访问的文件；如果启动服务有更好的地方，那就放在这里。

Note: 不要将任何命令放在 /etc/rc.conf 中。要启动守护进程或者在启动的时候运行任何命令，应该在 /usr/local/etc/rc.d 中放一个脚本来代替它。

用 cron(8) 守护进程来启动系统服务也是可以的。这个方法有很多有利的方法，不仅是因为 cron(8) 以 crontab 拥有者身份运行它们的，这些服务也可以用不是 root 身份的用户来启动和管理。

这利用了 cron(8) 的一个特性：时间规范可以用在系统启动后，cron(8) 启动时立刻就来运行程序的 @reboot 来替换。

6.6. 配置 cron

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

FreeBSD 最有用的软件包（utilities）中的一个是 cron(8)。cron 软件在后台运行并且经常检查 /etc/crontab 文件。cron 软件也检查 /var/cron/tabs 目录，搜索新的 crontab 文件。这些 crontab 文件存储一些 cron 在特定时间执行任务的信息。

让我们来看一下 /etc/crontab 文件：

# /etc/crontab - root's crontab for FreeBSD
#
# $FreeBSD: src/etc/crontab,v 1.32 2002/11/22 16:13:39 tom Exp $
# (1)
#
SHELL=/bin/sh
PATH=/etc:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin (2)
HOME=/var/log
#
#
#minute hour    mday    month   wday    who command (3)
#
#
*/5 *   *   *   *   root    /usr/libexec/atrun (4)
(1)
像大多数 FreeBSD 配置文件一样，# 字符是注释。作为什么和为什么要执行，可以加一个注释来描述以便将来提醒你。注释不能跟命令一样在同一行上否则他们会被看成命令的一部分。注释应该另起一行。空行将会被忽略。
(2)
首先应该定义环境变量。等号（=）字符用来定义任何环境变量，像这个例子用到了 SHELL，PATH 和 HOME 变量。如果 shell 行被忽略掉，cron 将会用默认值 sh。如果 PATH 变量被忽略，那么就没有默认值并且需要指定文件绝对位置。如果 HOME 被忽略，cron 将用用执行者的 home 目录。
(3)
这一行定义了七个字段。它们是 minute, hour，mday，month，wday，who 和 command。它们差不多已经说明了各自的用处。Minute 是命令要运行时的分钟，Hour 跟 minute 差不多，只是用小时来表示。Mday 是每个月的天。Month 跟 hour 还有 minute 都差不多，用月份来表示。wday 字段表示星期几。所有这些字段的值必须是数字并且用24小时制来表示。``who'' 字段是特别的，并且只在 /etc/crontab 文件中存在。这个字段指定了命令应该以哪个用户的身份来运行。当一个用户添加了他（她）的 crontab 文件的时候，他们就会没有这个字段选项。最后，是命令字段。这是最后的一个字段，所以自然就是它指定要运行的程序。
(4)
最后一行定义了上面所说的值。注意这里我们有一个 */5 列表，紧跟着是一些 * 字符。* 字符代表 ``开始到最后''，也可以被解释成 每次。所以，根据这行，显然表明了无论在何时每隔5分钟以 root 身份来运行 atrun 命令。查看 atrun(8) 手册页以获得 atrun 的更多信息。

命令可以有任意多个传递给它们的标志。无论怎样，扩展到多行的命令应该用反斜线（``\''）来续行。

这是每个 crontab 文件的基本设置，虽然它们有一个不同。第六行我们指定的用户名只存在于系统 /etc/crontab 文件。这个字段在普通用户的 crontab 文件中应该被忽略。

6.6.1. 安装 Crontab

要安装刚才写的 crontab，只需要用 crontab 命令。大多数普通的用法是：

# crontab crontab

还有一个选项来列出安装的 crontab 文件，只要传递 -l 给 crontab 然后看一下输出。

用户想不用模板（已经存在的文件）而直接安装他的 crontab 文件，用 crontab -e 选项也是可以的。它将会启动一个编辑器并且创建一个新文件，当这个文件被保存的时候，它会自动的用 crontab 来安装这个文件。

6.7. 在 FreeBSD 5.X 下使用 rc

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

FreeBSD 最近整合了 NetBSD 的 rc.d 系统以完成系统初始化。用户要注意 /etc/rc.d 目录下的文件。这些文件中的很多都是可以接受 start, stop 和 restart 选项的基本服务。例如，sshd(8) 可以用下面的命令重启：

# /etc/rc.d/sshd restart

其它的服务跟这个过程相似。当然，在 rc.conf(5) 指定的服务通常可以自动启动。例如，让网络地址转换（NAT）守护进程在系统启动的时候启动可以简单的在 /etc/rc.conf 中添加下面一行：

natd_enable="YES"

如果 natd_enable="NO" 行已经存在，只要简单的把 NO 改成 YES 即可。rc 脚本在下次重新启动的时候会自动的装载所需要的服务，像下面所描述的那样。

rc.d系统在系统启动/关闭时首先启动/停止服务；如果适当的 /etc/rc.conf 变量被设置，标准的 start，stop 和 restart 选项将会执行他们的动作。例如 sshd restart 命令只在 /etc/rc.conf 中的 sshd_enable 设置成 YES 的时候工作。不管是否在 /etc/rc.conf 中设置了，要 start, stop 或者 restart 一个服务，命令前可以加上一个 ``force'' 前缀。例如要不顾当前 /etc/rc.conf 的设置重新启动 sshd，执行下面的命令：

# /etc/rc.d/sshd forcerestart

用选项 rcvar 可以简单来的检查 /etc/rc.conf 中用适当的 rc.d 脚本启动的服务是否被启用。从而管理员可以运行这样的程序来检查 sshd 是否真的在 /etc/rc.conf 中被启动了：

# /etc/rc.d/sshd rcvar
# sshd
$sshd_enable=YES

Note: 第二行 (# sshd) 是从 sshd 命令中输出的；不是 root 控制台。

为了确定一个服务是否真的在运行，可以用 status 选项。例如验证 sshd 是否真的启动了：

# /etc/rc.d/sshd status
sshd is running as pid 433.

reload 一个服务也是可以的。这将要尝试发送一个信号给一个单独的服务，强制这个服务重新装载它的配置文件。大多数情况这意味着给服务发送一个 SIGHUP 信号。

rcNG 结构不仅仅是给网络服务提供的，它也给很多系统初始化提供服务。例如，处理 bgfsck 文件。当这个脚本执行的时候，它会输出下列信息：

Starting background file system checks in 60 seconds.

这个文件用做后台文件系统检查，系统初始化的时候完成。

很多系统服务依赖其他服务提供的相应功能。例如，NIS 和其他基于 RPC 的服务启动可能在 rpcbind 服务启动之前失败。要解决这个问题，依赖关系信息和其他头信息当作注释被包含在每个启动脚本文件的前面。程序在系统初始化时分析这些注释以决定调用其他系统服务来满足依赖关系。下面的字句可能会包含在每个启动脚本文件的前面：

  • PROVIDE: Specifies the services this file provides.

  • REQUIRE: Lists services which are required for this service. This file will run after the specified services.

  • BEFORE: Lists services which depend on this service. This file will run before the specified services.

  • KEYWORD: FreeBSD or NetBSD. This is used for *BSD dependent features.

通过这种方法，系统管理员可以容易的控制系统而不用像其他一些 UNIX 操作系统一样要用 ``runlevels'' 来控制。

FreeBSD5.X 的附加信息： rc.d 系统可以在 rc(8) 和 rc.subr(8) 手册页中找到。

6.8. 设置网卡

Contributed by Marc Fonvieille.

现在我们不可想象一个计算机没有网络连接的情况。添加和配置一块网卡是任何 FreeBSD 系统管理员的一项基本任务。

6.8.1. 查找正确的驱动程序

在开始之前，你应该知道你的网卡类型，它用的芯片和它是 PCI 还是 ISA 网卡。FreeBSD 支持很多种 PCI 和 ISA 网卡。可以查看你的版本硬件兼容性列表以确定你的网卡被支持。

现在你已经确信你的网卡被支持了，你需要为这块网卡选择正确的驱动程序。/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT 文件将会给你一些被支持的芯片/网卡驱动信息的列表。如果你对哪个是正确的驱动有疑问，阅读驱动的使用手册。手册会提供所支持硬件的更多信息和相关可能产生的问题。

如果你有一个普通的网卡，大多数时候你不需要为驱动浪费精力。常用的网卡在 GENERIC 内核中已经支持了，所以你的网卡在启动时就会显示出来，像是：

dc0: <82c169 PNIC 10/100BaseTX> port 0xa000-0xa0ff mem 0xd3800000-0xd38
000ff irq 15 at device 11.0 on pci0
dc0: Ethernet address: 00:a0:cc:da:da:da
miibus0: <MII bus> on dc0
ukphy0: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus0
ukphy0:  10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto
dc1: <82c169 PNIC 10/100BaseTX> port 0x9800-0x98ff mem 0xd3000000-0xd30
000ff irq 11 at device 12.0 on pci0
dc1: Ethernet address: 00:a0:cc:da:da:db
miibus1: <MII bus> on dc1
ukphy1: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus1
ukphy1:  10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto

在这个例子中，我们看到有两块使用 dc(4) 驱动的网卡在系统中。

为了使用网卡，需要装载正确的驱动程序。这可能通过两种途径来完成。最简单的方法是简单的用 kldload(8) 来装载一个驱动该网卡的内核模块。一个模块不是支持所有网卡驱动的（例如ISA 网卡用 ed(4) 来驱动）。另一种可选择的方法是你可以把支持你网卡的驱动静态的编译进内核。查看 /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT 和手册中的驱动部分来了解把什么添加到你的内核配置文件中。可以查看 Chapter 9 以获得更多的重新编译内核的信息。如果你的网卡在启动时被你的内核(GENERIC)检测到了，那么就没有必要建立一个新内核了。

6.8.2. 配置网卡

现在正确的网卡驱动程序已经装载，那么就应该配置它了。跟其他配置一样，网卡可以在安装时用 sysinstall 来配置。

要显示你系统上的网络接口的配置，输入下列命令：

% ifconfig
dc0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
        inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.1.255
        ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:da
        media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX <full-duplex>)
        status: active
dc1: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
        inet 10.0.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
        ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:db
        media: Ethernet 10baseT/UTP
        status: no carrier
lp0: flags=8810<POINTOPOINT,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384
        inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000
tun0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500

Note: 老版本的 FreeBSD 可能需要在 ifconfig(8) 后面接 -a 选项，需要了解更多的 ifconfig(8) 语法请查阅使用手册。注意所有关于 IPv6 (inet6 等等) 的记录在这个例子里都被忽略了。

在这个例子中，显示出了下列设备：

  • dc0: The first Ethernet interface

  • dc1: The second Ethernet interface

  • lp0: The parallel port interface

  • lo0: The loopback device

  • tun0: The tunnel device used by ppp

FreeBSD 使用内核引导时检测到的网卡驱动顺序来命名网卡。例如 sis2 是系统中使用 sis(4) 驱动的第三块网卡。

在这个例子中，dc0 设备启用了。主要表现在：

  1. UP 表示这块网卡已经配置完成准备工作。

  2. 这块网卡有一个 Internet (inet) 地址 (这个例子中是 192.168.1.3)。

  3. 它有一个有效的子网掩码 (netmask；0xffffff00 等同于 255.255.255.0)。

  4. 它有一个有效的广播地址 (这个例子中是 192.168.1.255)。

  5. 网卡的 MAC (ether) 地址是 00:a0:cc:da:da:da

  6. 物理传输媒介模式处于自动选择状态(media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX <full-duplex>))。我们看到 dc1 被配置成运行在 10baseT/UTP 模式下。要了解驱动媒介类型的更多信息，请查阅它们的使用手册。

  7. 连接状态 (status)是 active，也就是说连接信号被检测到了。对于 dc1，我们看到 status: no carrier。这通常是网线没有插好。

如果 ifconfig(8) 的输出显示了类似于：

dc0: flags=8843<BROADCAST,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
            ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:da

的信息，那么就是还没有配置网卡。

要配置网卡，你需要 root 权限。网卡配置可以通过使用 ifconfig(8) 命令行方式来完成，但是这样每次启动都要做一遍。放置网卡配置信息的文件是 /etc/rc.conf。

用你自己喜欢的编辑器打开 /etc/rc.conf。并且你需要为每一块系统中存在的网卡添加一行，在我们的例子中，添加如下几行：

ifconfig_dc0="inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.0"
ifconfig_dc1="inet 10.0.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 media 10baseT/UTP"

用自己正确的设备名和地址来替换例子中的 dc0，dc1 等内容。你应该应该查阅网卡驱动和 ifconfig(8) 的手册页来了解各选项，也要查看一下 rc.conf(5) 帮助页来了解 /etc/rc.conf 的语法。

如果在安装的时候配置了网络，关于网卡的一些行可能已经存在了。所以在添加新行前仔细检查一下 /etc/rc.conf。

你也可能需要编辑 /etc/hosts 来添加局域网中不同的机器名称和 IP 地址，如果它们不存在，查看 hosts(5) 帮助和 /usr/share/examples/etc/hosts 以获得更多信息。

6.8.3. 测试和调试

对 /etc/rc.conf 做了必要的修改之后应该重启系统以应用对接口的修改，并且确认系统重启后没有任何配置错误。

系统重启后就应该测试网络接口了。

6.8.3.1. 测试以太网卡

为了确认网卡被正确的配置了，在这里我们要做两件事情。首先，ping 自己的网络接口，接着 ping 局域网内的其他机器。

首先测试本地接口：

% ping -c5 192.168.1.3
PING 192.168.1.3 (192.168.1.3): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.082 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.074 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.076 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.108 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=0.076 ms

--- 192.168.1.3 ping statistics ---
5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 0.074/0.083/0.108/0.013 ms

现在我们应该 ping 局域网内的其他机器：

% ping -c5 192.168.1.2
PING 192.168.1.2 (192.168.1.2): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.726 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.766 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.700 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.747 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=0.704 ms

--- 192.168.1.2 ping statistics ---
5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 0.700/0.729/0.766/0.025 ms

你如果你设置了 /etc/hosts 文件，也可以用机器名来替换 192.168.1.2。

6.8.3.2. 调试

调试硬件和软件配置一直是一件头痛的事情，从最简单的开始可以减轻一些痛苦。例如网线是否插好了？是否配置好了网络服务？防火墙配置正确吗？是否使用了被 & os; 支持的网卡？在发送错误报告之前你应该查看一下硬件说明，升级 FreeBSD 到最新的 STABLE 版本，看一下邮件列表或者在 Internet 上搜索一下。

如果网卡工作了，但是性能底下，应该好好阅读一下 tuning(7) 帮助页。你也可以检查一下网络配置，一些不正确的设置会导致慢速的网络连接。

一些用户可能会在一些网卡上经历一到两次`` 设备超时（device timeouts）''，如果经常这样甚至引起麻烦，你要确定一下它跟其他设备没有冲突。仔细检查网线连接。可能这需要换一块网卡。

有时用户会看到少数的 ``监测者超时（watchdog timeout）'' 错误。这种情况要做的第一件事就是检查线缆连接。一些网卡需要支持总线控制的 PCI 插槽。在一些老的主板上，只有一个 PCI 插槽支持。（一般是 slot 0）。检查网卡和主板说明书来确定是不是这个问题。

``没有到主机的路由（No route to host）'' 的信息发生在如果系统不能发送一个路由到目的主机的包的时候。这在没有指定默认路由或者网线没有插上时会发生。检查 netstat -rn 的输出并确认有一个有效的路由能到达你要的主机。如果没有，请查阅 Chapter 19。

``ping: 发送到: 访问被拒绝（ping: sendto: Permission denied）'' 错误信息经常因为一个配置错误的防火墙引起。如果 ipfw 在内核中启用了但是没有定义规则，那么默认的规则就是拒绝所有通讯，甚至 ping 请求！查阅 Section 10.8 以了解更多信息。

有时网卡性能底下或者低于平均水平，这种情况最好把传输媒介模式从 autoselect 改变为正确的传输媒介模式。这通常对大多数硬件有用，但是可能不会解决所有人的问题。接着，检查所有网络设置，并且阅读 tuning(7) 手册页。

6.9. 虚拟主机

FreeBSD 的一个很普通的用途是虚拟主机站点，一个服务器虚拟成很多服务器一样提供网络服务。这通过在一个接口上绑定多个网络地址来实现。

一个特定的网络接口有一个 ``真实'' 的地址，也可能有一些 ``别名'' 地址。这些别名通常用 /etc/rc.conf 中的记录来添加。

一个 fxp0 的别名记录类似于：

ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx"

记住别名记录必须从 alias0 开始并且按顺序递增（例如 _alias1, _alias2）。配置程序将会停止在第一个缺少的数字的地方。

计算别名的子网掩码是很重要的，幸运的是它很简单。对于一个接口来说，必须有一个描述子网掩码的地址。任何在这个网段下的地址必须有一个全是 1的子网掩码。

例如，假设 fxp0 连接到两个网段，子网掩码是 255.255.255.0 的 10.1.1.0 和子网掩码是 255.255.255.240 的 202.0.75.16。我们将要系统使用从 10.1.1.1 到 10.1.1.5 和从 202.0.75.17 到 202.0.75.20 的地址。

下面的记录会正确的设置这个适配器：

 ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet 10.1.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias1="inet 10.1.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias2="inet 10.1.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias3="inet 10.1.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias4="inet 202.0.75.17 netmask 255.255.255.240"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias5="inet 202.0.75.18 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias6="inet 202.0.75.19 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias7="inet 202.0.75.20 netmask 255.255.255.255"

6.10. 配置文件

6.10.1. /etc 布局

在配置信息中有很多的目录，这些包括：

/etc 一般的系统配置信息。这儿的数据是与特定系统相关的。
/etc/defaults 系统配置文件的默认版本。
/etc/mail 额外的 sendmail(8) 配置信息，其他 MTA 配置文件。
/etc/ppp 用于用户级和内核级 ppp 程序的配置。
/etc/namedb named(8) 数据的默认位置。通常 named.conf 和区域文件存放在这里。
/usr/local/etc 被安装的应用程序配置文件。可以参考每个应用程序的子目录。
/usr/local/etc/rc.d 被安装程序的 启动/停止 脚本。
/var/db 特定系统自动产生的数据库文件，像 package 数据库，位置数据库等等。

6.10.2. 主机名

6.10.2.1. /etc/resolv.conf

/etc/resolv.conf 指示了 FreeBSD 如何访问域名系统(DNS)。

resolv.conf 中最常见的记录是：

nameserver 按顺序要查询的名字服务器的 IP 地址，最多三个。
search 搜索机器名的列表。这通常由本地机器名的域决定。
domain 本地域名。

一个典型的 resolv.conf 文件：

search example.com
nameserver 147.11.1.11
nameserver 147.11.100.30

Note: 只能使用一个 search 和 domain 选项。

如果你在使用 DHCP，dhclient(8) 经常使用从 DHCP 服务器接受来的信息重写 resolv.conf。

6.10.2.2. /etc/hosts

/etc/hosts 是 Internet 早期使用的一个简单文本数据库。它结合 DNS 和 NIS 提供名字到 IP 地址的映射。通过局域网连接的机器可以用这个简单的命名方案来替代设置一个 named(8) 服务器。另外，/etc/hosts 也可以提供一个 Internet 名称的本地纪录以减轻需要从外部查询带来的负担。

# $FreeBSD$
#
# Host Database
# This file should contain the addresses and aliases
# for local hosts that share this file.
# In the presence of the domain name service or NIS, this file may
# not be consulted at all; see /etc/nsswitch.conf for the resolution order.
#
#
::1                     localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain
127.0.0.1               localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain

#
# Imaginary network.
#10.0.0.2               myname.my.domain myname
#10.0.0.3               myfriend.my.domain myfriend
#
# According to RFC 1918, you can use the following IP networks for
# private nets which will never be connected to the Internet:
#
#       10.0.0.0        -   10.255.255.255
#       172.16.0.0      -   172.31.255.255
#       192.168.0.0     -   192.168.255.255
#
# In case you want to be able to connect to the Internet, you need
# real official assigned numbers.  PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE do not try
# to invent your own network numbers but instead get one from your
# network provider (if any) or from the Internet Registry (ftp to
# rs.internic.net, directory `/templates').
#

/etc/hosts 用简单的格式：

[Internet address] [official hostname] [alias1] [alias2] ...

例如：

10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.example.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2

参考 hosts(5) 以获得更多信息。

6.10.3. 日志文件配置

6.10.3.1. syslog.conf

syslog.conf 是 syslogd(8) 程序的配置文件。 它指出了的 syslog 哪种信息类型被存储在特定的日志文件中。

# $FreeBSD$
#
#       Spaces ARE valid field separators in this file. However,
#       other *nix-like systems still insist on using tabs as field
#       separators. If you are sharing this file between systems, you
#       may want to use only tabs as field separators here.
#       Consult the syslog.conf(5) manual page.
*.err;kern.debug;auth.notice;mail.crit          /dev/console
*.notice;kern.debug;lpr.info;mail.crit;news.err /var/log/messages
security.*                                      /var/log/security
mail.info                                       /var/log/maillog
lpr.info                                        /var/log/lpd-errs
cron.*                                          /var/log/cron
*.err                                           root
*.notice;news.err                               root
*.alert                                         root
*.emerg                                         *
# uncomment this to log all writes to /dev/console to /var/log/console.log
#console.info                                   /var/log/console.log
# uncomment this to enable logging of all log messages to /var/log/all.log
#*.*                                            /var/log/all.log
# uncomment this to enable logging to a remote log host named loghost
#*.*                                            @loghost
# uncomment these if you're running inn
# news.crit                                     /var/log/news/news.crit
# news.err                                      /var/log/news/news.err
# news.notice                                   /var/log/news/news.notice
!startslip
*.*                                             /var/log/slip.log
!ppp
*.*                                             /var/log/ppp.log

参考 syslog.conf(5) 手册页以获得更多信息

6.10.3.2. newsyslog.conf

newsyslog.conf 是一个通常用 cron(8) 计划运行的 newsyslog(8) 程序的配置文件。newsyslog(8) 指出了什么时候日志文件需要打包或者重新整理。比如 logfile 被移动到 logfile.0，logfile.0 被移动到 logfile.1 等等。另外，日志文件可以用 gzip(1) 来压缩，它们是这样的命名格式：logfile.0.gz，logfile.1.gz 等等。

newsyslog.conf 指出了哪个日志文件要被管理，要保留多少和它们什么时候被创建。日志文件可以在它们达到一定大小或者在特定的日期被重新整理。

# configuration file for newsyslog
# $FreeBSD$
#
# filename          [owner:group]    mode count size when [ZB] [/pid_file] [sig_num]
/var/log/cron                           600  3     100  *     Z
/var/log/amd.log                        644  7     100  *     Z
/var/log/kerberos.log                   644  7     100  *     Z
/var/log/lpd-errs                       644  7     100  *     Z
/var/log/maillog                        644  7     *    @T00  Z
/var/log/sendmail.st                    644  10    *    168   B
/var/log/messages                       644  5     100  *     Z
/var/log/all.log                        600  7     *    @T00  Z
/var/log/slip.log                       600  3     100  *     Z
/var/log/ppp.log                        600  3     100  *     Z
/var/log/security                       600  10    100  *     Z
/var/log/wtmp                           644  3     *    @01T05 B
/var/log/daily.log                      640  7     *    @T00  Z
/var/log/weekly.log                     640  5     1    $W6D0 Z
/var/log/monthly.log                    640  12    *    $M1D0 Z
/var/log/console.log                    640  5     100  *     Z

参考 newsyslog(8) 手册页以获得更多信息。

6.10.4. sysctl.conf

sysctl.conf 看起来很像 rc.conf。它用 variable=value 的形式来设定值。指定的值在系统进入多用户模式之后被设定。并不是所有的变量都可以在这个模式下设定。

一个简单的例子举明了在 sysctl.conf 中关闭了重要的退出信号的日志并且让 Linux 程序知道他们其实运行在 FreeBSD 下面：

kern.logsigexit=0       # Do not log fatal signal exits (e.g. sig 11)
compat.linux.osname=FreeBSD
compat.linux.osrelease=4.3-STABLE

6.11. 用 sysctl 进行调整

sysctl(8) 是一个允许你改变正在运行中的 FreeBSD 系统的接口。它包含一些 TCP/IP 堆栈和虚拟内存系统的高级选项，这可以让有经验的管理员提高引人注目的系统性能。用 sysctl(8) 可以读取设置超过五百个系统变量。

基于这点，sysctl(8) 提供两个功能：读取和修改系统设置。

查看所有可读变量：

% sysctl -a

读一个指定的变量，例如 kern.maxproc：

% sysctl kern.maxproc
kern.maxproc: 1044

要设置一个指定的变量，直接用 variable=value 这样的语法：

# sysctl kern.maxfiles=5000
kern.maxfiles: 2088 -> 5000

sysctl 变量的设置通常是字符串、数字或者布尔型。（布尔型用 1 来表示'yes'，用 0 来表示'no'）。

6.11.1. 只读的 sysctl(8)

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

有时想要修改只读的 sysctl(8) 的值。有时这不被推荐，有时也是不可避免的。

例如一些膝上型电脑的 cardbus(4) 设备不会探测内存范围，并且产生看似于这样的错误：

cbb0: Could not map register memory

device_probe_and_attach: cbb0 attach returned 12

像上面的错误通常需要修改一些只读的 sysctl(8) 默认设置。要实现这点，用户可以在本地的 /boot/loader.conf.local 里面放一个 sysctl(8) ``OIDs''。那些设置定位在 /boot/defaults/loader.conf 文件中。

修复上面的问题用户需要在刚才所说的文件中设置 hw.pci.allow_unsupported_io_range=1。现在 cardbus(4) 就会正常的工作了。

6.12. 调整磁盘

6.12.1. Sysctl 变量

6.12.1.1. vfs.vmiodirenable

vfs.vmiodirenable sysctl 变量可以设置成0（关）或者1（开）；默认是1。这个变量控制目录是否被系统缓存。大多数目录是小的，在系统中只使用单个片断（典型的是1K）并且在缓存中使用的更小（典型的是512字节）。然而，当在默认状态下操作的时候，缓存器仅仅缓存固定数量的目录，即使你有很大的内存。把这个 sysctl 变量设置成 on 允许缓存器用 VM 页面缓存来缓存这些目录，让所有可用内存来缓存目录。不利的是最小的用来缓存目录的核心内存是大于 512 字节的物理页面大小（典型的是 4k），。我们建议如果你在运行任何操作大数目文件的程序时打开这个选项。这些服务包括 web 缓存，大容量邮件系统和新闻系统。打开这个选项通常不会降低性能只是会浪费一些内存。但是你应该检验一下。

6.12.1.2. vfs.write_behind

vfs.write_behind sysctl 变量默认是 1 （打开）。它告诉文件系统簇被收集满的时候把内容写进介质，典型的是在写入大的连续的文件时。 在它不利于 I/O 性能的时候可以防止垃圾缓存把缓存占满（The idea is to avoid saturating the buffer cache with dirty buffers when it would not benefit I/O performance.）。然而它可能降低处理速度并且在某些情况下你可能想要关闭它。

6.12.1.3. vfs.hirunningspace

vfs.hirunningspace sysctl 变量决定了在任何场合多少写 I/O 被排进队列以给系统的磁盘控制器。默认值一般是足够的，但是对有很多磁盘的机器来说你可能需要把它设置成4M或5M。注意这个设置成很高的值（超过缓存器的写极限）会导致坏的性能。不要盲目的把它设置太高！高的数值会导致同时发生的读操作的迟延。

sysctl 中还有不同的缓冲器缓存和虚拟页面缓存。我们不建议修改这些值。像是 FreeBSD 4.3，虚拟内存系统会自动调整好自己，工作得非常好。

6.12.1.4. vm.swap_idle_enabled

vm.swap_idle_enabled sysctl 变量在有很多用户进入、离开系统和有很多空闲进程的大的多用户系统中很有用。 这些系统注重在空闲的内存中间产生连续压力的处理。通过 vm.swap_idle_threshold1 和 vm.swap_idle_threshold2 打开这个特性并且调整交换滞后（在空闲时）允许你降低内存页中空闲进程的优先权，从而比正常的出页（pageout）算法更快。这给出页守护进程带来了帮助。除非你需要否则不要把这个选项打开，因为你所权衡的是更快地进入内存，因而它会吃掉更多的交换和磁盘带宽。在小的系统上它会有决定性的效果，但是在大的系统上它已经做了合适的页面调度这个选项允许VM系统容易的让全部的进程进出内存。

6.12.1.5. hw.ata.wc

FreeBSD 4.3 IDE 写缓存关掉了。这降低了到IDE磁盘的带宽但是保证了传进磁盘数据的严格完整性。这个问题是因为IDE驱动器当写完成的时候无所事事。IDE写缓存打开的时候，IDE驱动器不按顺序把数据写进磁盘。当有很重的磁盘负载的时候它有时迟延写入一些块。当机或者掉电会引起严重的文件系统讹误。FreeBSD 的默认值改变成安全的模式。不幸的是结果是带来了很大的性能损失，所以我们在发行版之后把写缓存的默认值改成了 on。你应该注意 hw.ata.wc sysctl 变量来检查一下系统中的默认值。如果IDE写缓存被关闭了，你可以通过设置内核变量为1来打开它。这必须在启动时通过boot loader来完成。在内核启动之后尝试这么做将会没有效果。

要了解更多的信息，请查阅 ata(4)。

6.12.1.6. SCSI_DELAY (kern.cam.scsi_delay)

SCSI_DELAY 内核配置会缩短系统启动时间。默认值在系统启动过程中有 15+ 秒的迟延时间，这是一个足够多且可靠的值。把它减少到 5 通常也能工作(特别是现代的驱动器)。新一些的 FreeBSD (5.0+) 应该用启动时刻可调整 kern.cam.scsi_delay。这个可调整的和内核配置选项接受的值是 毫秒 不是 秒 。

6.12.2. Soft Updates

tunefs(8) 程序能够用来很好的调整文件系统。这个程序有很多不同的选项，但是现在只介绍 Soft Updates 德打开和关闭，这样做：

# tunefs -n enable /filesystem
# tunefs -n disable /filesystem

在文件系统被挂载之后不能用 tunefs(8) 来修改。打开 Soft Updates 的最佳时机是在单用户模式下任何分区被被挂载前。

Note: 像 FreeBSD 4.5，在文件系统创建时也可以打开 Soft Updates，通过 newfs(8) 的 -U 选项。

Soft Updates 彻底的改善了数据描述(meta-data)的性能，主要是文件创建和删除，通过内存缓存。我们建议你在所有的文件系统上使用 Soft Updates。应该知道 Soft Updates 的两点：首先， Soft Updates 保证了崩溃后的文件系统完整性，但是很可能有几秒钟（甚至一分钟！）之前的数据没有写到物理磁盘。如果你的系统崩溃了你可能会丢失很多工作。第二，SoftUpdates 推迟文件系统块的释放时间。如果在文件系统（例如根文件系统）快满了的情况下对系统进行大规模的升级比如 make installworld，可能会引起磁盘空间不足从而造成升级失败。

6.12.2.1. Soft Updates 的详细资料

有两种传统的方法来把文件系统的元数据(meta-data)写入磁盘。（Meta-data更新是更新类似inodes或者目录这些没有内容的数据）

从前，默认方法是同步更新这些元数据（meta-data）。如果一个目录改变了，系统在真正写到磁盘之前一直等待。文件数据缓存（文件内容）在这之后以非同步形式写入。这么做有利的一点是操作安全。如果更新时发生错误，元数据（meta-data）一直处于完整状态。文件要不就被完整的创建要不根本就不创建。如果崩溃时找不到文件的数据块，fsck(8) 可以找到并且依靠把文件大小设置为0来修复文件系统。另外，这么做既清楚又简单。缺点是元数据（meta-data）更新很慢。例如 rm -r 命令，从而改变目录下的所有文件，但是每个目录的改变（删除一个文件）都要同步写入磁盘。这包含它自己更新目录，inode表和可能对文件分散的块的更新。同样问题出现大的文件操作上（比如 tar -x）。

第二种方法是非同步元数据更新。这是 Linux/ext2fs 和 *BSD ufs 的 mount -o async 默认的方法。所有元数据更新也是通过缓存。也就是它们会混合在文件内容数据更新中。这个方法的优点是不需要等待每个元数据更新都写到磁盘上，所以所有引起元数据更新大的操作比同步方式更快。同样，这个方法也是清楚且简单的，所以代码中的漏洞风险很小。缺点是不能保证文件系统的状态一致性。如果更新大量元数据时失败（例如掉电或者按了重启按钮），文件系统会处在不可预知的状态。系统再启动时没有机会检查文件系统的状态；inode表更新的时候可能文件的数据块已经写入磁盘了但是相关联的目录没有，却不能用 fsck 命令来清理（因为磁盘上没有所需要的信息）。如果文件系统修复后损坏了，唯一的选择是使用 newfs(8) 并且从备份中恢复它。

这个问题通常的解决办法是使用 dirty region logging 或者 journaling 尽管它不是一贯的被使用并且有时候应用到其他的事务纪录中更好。 。这种方法元数据更新依然同步写入，但是只写到磁盘的一个小区域。过后他们将会被移动到正确的位置。因为纪录区很小，磁盘上接近的区域磁头不需要移动很长的距离，所以这些比写同步快一些。另外这个方法的复杂性有限，所以出现错误的机会也很少。缺点是元数据要写两次（一次写到纪录区域，一次写到正确的区域）。正常情况下，悲观的性能可能会发生。从另一方面来讲，崩溃的时候所有未发生的元数据操作可以很快的在系统启动之后从记录中恢复过来。

Kirk McKusick，伯克利 FFS 的开发者，用 Soft Updates 解决了这个问题：元数据更新保存在内存中并且按照排列的顺序写入到磁盘（``有序的元数据更新''）。这样的结果是，在繁重的元数据操作中，如果先前的更新还在内存中没有别写进磁盘，后来的更新就会捕捉到。所以所有的目录操作在写进磁盘的时候首先在内存中执行（数据块按照它们的位置来排列，所以它们不会在元数据前被写入）。如果系统崩溃了这将导致一个固定的 ``日志回朔''：所有不知如何写入磁盘的操作都像没有发生过一样。文件系统的一致性保持在30到60秒之前。它保证了所有正在使用的资源被标记例如块和inodes。崩溃之后，唯一的资源分配错误是一个实际是``空闲''的资源的资源被标记为``使用''。 fsck(8) 可以认出这种情况并且释放不再使用的资源。它对于忽略崩溃后用 mount -f 强制挂上的文件系统的错误状态是安全的。为了释放可能没有使用的资源，fsck(8) 需要在过后的时间运行。一个主意是用 后台 fsck：系统启动的时候只有一个文件系统的快照被记录下来。fsck可以在过后运行。所有文件系统可以在``有错误''的时候被挂接，所以系统可以在多用户模式下启动。接着，后台 fsck 可以在所有文件系统需要的时候启动来释放可能没有使用的资源。（尽管这样，不用 Soft Updates 的文件系统依然需要通常的fsck。）

它的优点是元数据操作几乎跟非同步一样快（也就是比需要两次元数据写操作的 logging 更快）。缺点是代码的复杂性（意味着对于丢失用户敏感数据有更多的风险）和高的内存使用量。另外它有些特点需要知道。崩溃之后，文件系统状态会 ``落后'' 一些。同步的方法用 fsck 后在一些地方可能产生一些零字节的文件，这些文件在用 Soft Updates 文件系统之后不会存在，因为元数据和文件内容根本没有写进磁盘（可能发生在运行 rm 之后）。这可能在文件系统上安装大量数据时候引发问题，没有足够的剩余空间来两次存储所有文件。

6.13. 调整内核限制

6.13.1. 文件/进程限制

6.13.1.1. kern.maxfiles

kern.maxfiles 可以根据系统的需求加大或者减小。这个变量指出了在系统上文件描述符的最大数量。当文件描述符表曼的时候，用 dmesg 命令可以看到 ``file: table is full'' 将会在系统信息缓存里反复的出现。

每个打开的文件、套接字、fifo 都使用一个描述符。一个大规模的服务器很容易使用上千个文件描述符，这取决于系统中同时运行着的服务的数量和类型。

kern.maxfile 的默认值以系统配置文件中的 MAXUSERS 选项来决定。kern.maxfiles 同 MAXUSERS 的值成比例的增长。编译一个自定义内核的时候，按照你系统中用户的数量来设置这个值是个好主意。从这个数字可以确定内核很多先前定义的限制。即使一台机器不会真有256个用户同时连接，所需要的资源也可能跟一个高负荷的web服务器差不多。

Note: 像是 FreeBSD 4.5，在你的内核配置中设置 MAXUSERS 为会通过系统中内存的数量来选择一个合适的值。

6.13.1.2. kern.ipc.somaxconn

kern.ipc.somaxconn sysctl 变量 限制了接收新 TCP 连接侦听队列的大小。对于一个经常处理新连接的高负载web服务环境来说，默认的 128 太小了。大多数环境这个值建议增加到 1024 或者更多。服务进程会自己限制侦听队列的大小（例如 sendmail(8) 或者 Apache），常常在它们的配置文件中有设置队列大小的选项。大的侦听队列对防止拒绝服务 DoS 攻击也会有所帮助。

6.13.2. 网络限制

NMBCLUSTERS 内核配置选项指出了系统可用的网络Mbuf的数量。一个高流量的服务器使用一个小数目的网络缓存会影响 FreeBSD 的性能。每个 cluster 可能需要2K内存，所以一个1024的值需要在内核中给网络缓存保留2M内存。一个简单的方法可以计算出来需要多少网络缓存。如果你有一个同时发生1000个以上连接的web服务器，并且每个连接用掉16K接收和发送缓存，你需要大概32M网络缓存来确保web服务器的工作。一个好的简单计算方法是乘以2，所以2x32Mb/2Kb=64MB/2kb=32768。我们建议在有大量内存的机器上把这个值设置在4096到32768之间。没有必要把它设置成任意太高的值，它会在启动时引起崩溃。netstat(1) 的 -m 选项可以用来观察网络cluster使用情况。

kern.ipc.nmbclusters 可以用来在启动时刻调节这个。仅仅在旧版本的 FreeBSD 需要使用 NMBCLUSTERS config(8) 选项。

繁忙的服务器经常使用 sendfile(2) 系统呼叫，有必要通过 NSFBUFS 内核选项或者在 /boot/loader.conf（查看 loader(8) 以获得更多细节）中设置它的值来调节 sendfile(2) 缓存数量。这个参数需要调节的普通原因是在进程中看到 ``sfbufa'' 状态。sysctl kern.ipc.nsfbufs 变量在内核配置变量中是只读的。这个参数是由 kern.maxusers 决定的，然而它可能有必有因此而调整。

Important: 即使一个套接字被标记成非阻塞，在这个非阻塞的套接字上呼叫 sendfile(2) 可能导致 sendfile(2) 呼叫阻塞直到有足够的 struct sf_buf 可用。

6.13.2.1. net.inet.ip.portrange.*

The net.inet.ip.portrange.* sysctl 变量自动的控制绑定在 TCP 和 UDP 套接字上的端口范围。这里有三个范围：一个低端范围，一个默认范围和一个高端范围。大多数网络程序分别使用由 net.inet.ip.portrange.first 和 net.inet.ip.portrange.last 控制的从1024到5000的默认范围。端口范围用作对外连接，并且某些情况可能用完系统的端口，这经常发生在运行一个高负荷web代理服务器的时候。这个端口范围不是用来限制主要的例如web服务器进入连接或者有固定端口例如邮件传递对外连接的。有时你可能用完了端口，那就建议适当的增加 net.inet.ip.portrange.last。10000, 20000 或者 30000 可能是适当的值。更改端口范围的时候也要考虑到防火墙。一些防火墙会阻止端口的大部分范围（通常是低范围的端口）并且用高端口进行对外连接（--）。基于这个问题建议把 net.inet.ip.portrange.first 设置的小一点。

6.13.2.2. TCP 带宽迟延（Bandwidth Delay Product）

The TCP Bandwidth Delay Product Limiting 类似于 NetBSD 的TCP/Vegas。它可以通过设置 net.inet.tcp.inflight_enable sysctl 变量为 1 来启动。系统将会为每个连接尝试带宽迟延并且限制发送到网络中的队列中的数据数量以维持适当的吞吐量。 similar to TCP/Vegas in NetBSD. It can be enabled by setting net.inet.tcp.inflight_enable sysctl variable to 1. The system will attempt to calculate the bandwidth delay product for each connection and limit the amount of data queued to the network to just the amount required to maintain optimum throughput.

如果你在使用调制解调器，千兆以太网或者高速的广域网连接（或者其他有高的带宽迟延的产品）提供数据服务，这个特性就会很有用。特别是你在使用窗口缩放或者配置一个大的发送窗口。如果启用了这个选项，童谣要确信设置 net.inet.tcp.inflight_debug 为 0（关闭调试），对于生产用来说，设置 net.inet.tcp.inflight_min 至少为 6144 可能会受益。然而，注意设置一个高的最小值能有效的关闭依赖连接的带宽限制。这个限制特性减少了在路由和交换包队列的堵塞数据数量，也减少了在本地主机接口队列阻塞的数据的数量。在少数的等候队列中、交互式连接，尤其是通过慢速的调制解调器，也能用低的 往返时间操作。但是，注意这只影响到数据发送（上载/服务端）。对数据接收（下载）没有效果。

调整 net.inet.tcp.inflight_stab 是不被建议的。这个参数的默认值是20，它代表两个最大的包被添加到带宽迟延窗口考虑。另外的窗口是稳定算法和改善改变条件时的应答所需要的，但是它也能导致通过慢速连接产生高的ping时间（虽然比你不用这个算法还慢）。这些情况下，你可能想试着把这个参数减小到15，10或者5；并且也可能需要减小 net.inet.tcp.inflight_min（例如3500）来达到效果。减少这些参数应该是最后的唯一手段。

6.14. 添加交换空间

不管你计划的如何好，有时候系统并不像你所期待的那样运行。如果你发现需要更多的交换空间，添加它很简单。有三种方法增加交换空间：添加一块新的硬盘驱动器、通过NFS使用交换空间和在一个现有的分区上创建一个交换文件。

6.14.1. 在新的硬盘驱动器上使用交换空间

这是添加交换空间最好的方法，当然为了达到这个目的需要添加一块硬盘。毕竟你总是可以使用另一块磁盘。如果想这么做，重新阅读一下初始配置（使用手册的初始配置 - 交换空间）章节来获得如何安排交换空间的信息。

6.14.2. 通过 NFS 交换

通过 NFS 来交换只在你没有本地硬盘交换的时候被建议。在 FreeBSD 4.X 以前的版本中使用NFS交换速度很慢并且效率低下。4.0-RELEASE和更新的版本中他的速度和效率还是可以接受的。即使使用新版本的 FreeBSD，NFS 交换也会被可用的网络带宽限制并且增加 NFS 服务器的负担。

6.14.3. 交换文件

你可以创建一个指定大小的文件用来当作交换文件。在我们的例子中我们将会使用叫做 /usr/swap0 的 64MB 大小的文件。当然你也可以使用任何你所希望的名字。

Example 6-1. 在 FreeBSD 4.X 上创建一个交换文件

  1. 确认你的内核配置包含了 vnode 驱动。它不包含在最近版本的 GENERIC。

    pseudo-device   vn 1   #Vnode driver (turns a file into a device)

  2. 创建一个 vn-device 设备：

    # cd /dev
# sh MAKEDEV vn0

  3. 创建一个交换文件 (/usr/swap0)：

    # dd if=/dev/zero of=/usr/swap0 bs=1024k count=64

  4. 赋予它（/usr/swap0）一个适当的权限：

    # chmod 0600 /usr/swap0

  5. 在 /etc/rc.conf 中启用交换文件：

    swapfile="/usr/swap0"   # Set to name of swapfile if aux swapfile desired.

  6. 通过重新启动机器或下面的命令使交换文件立刻生效：

    # vnconfig -e /dev/vn0b /usr/swap0 swap

Example 6-2. 在 FreeBSD 5.X 上创建一个交换文件：

  1. 确认你的内核配置包含虚拟磁盘（Memory disk）驱动（md(4)）。它在 GENERIC 内核中是默认的。

    device   md   # Memory "disks"

  2. 创建一个交换文件（/usr/swap0）：

    # dd if=/dev/zero of=/usr/swap0 bs=1024k count=64

  3. 赋予它（/usr/swap0）一个适当的权限：

    # chmod 0600 /usr/swap0

  4. 在 /etc/rc.conf 中启用交换文件：

    swapfile="/usr/swap0"   # Set to name of swapfile if aux swapfile desired.

  5. 通过重新启动机器或下面的命令使交换文件立刻生效：

    # mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /usr/swap0 -u 0 && swapon /dev/md0

6.15. 电源和资源管理

Written by Hiten Pandya and Tom Rhodes.

以有效的方式利用硬件资源是非常重要的。在提出 ACPI 之前，管理电源使用和系统散热对操作系统是很困难的。硬件被嵌入的 BIOS 接口管理，例如可插拔 BIOS (PNPBIOS)或者高级电源管理(APM)等等。电源和资源管理是现代操作系统的关键组成部分。例如你可能当系统温度过高的时候让你的操作系统能监视到（并且可能提醒你）。

在 FreeBSD 使用手册的这一章节，我们将提供 ACPI 全面的信息。参考资料会在末尾。ACPI 在FreeBSD 5.X及以上的操作系统中作为一个默认的内核模块被支持。对于 FreeBSD 4.9，ACPI 可以通过在内核配置文件中添加 device acpi 并且重新编译内核来启用。

6.15.1. 什么是 ACPI？

高级配置和电源接口（ACPI）是一个业界标准的硬件资源和电源管理接口（因此而得名）。它是 操作系统控制的配置和电源管理（Operating System-directed configuration and Power Management），也就是说，它给操作系统（OS）提供了更多的控制和弹性。现代操作系统``延伸''了当前即插即用接口（像是 FreeBSD4.X 中使用的 APM）的限制，在 ACPI 的介绍之前。ACPI 是 APM（高级电源管理）的直接继承者。

6.15.2. 高级电源管理（APM）的缺点

高级电源管理（APM） 基于它的行动简单的控制系统的电源使用。 APM BIOS 被（系统）厂商支持并且区分于硬件平台。操作系统的APM驱动有权使用一个允许电源级别管理的 APM 软件接口。

APM 中有四个主要问题。首先，电源管理通过（不同的厂家）BIOS 来完成，并且操作系统没有任何关于它的知识。一个例子是，用户在 APM BIOS 中为硬盘设置空闲时间（idle-time）的值，BIOS 不经过操作系统同意将会让硬盘驱动器停止转动。第二，APM 的逻辑是嵌入在 BIOS 中的，它在操作系统之外工作。这意味着用户只能通过刷新新的 ROM 来修复问题；它是很危险的，并且如果失败了，它会让系统处于一个不可修复的状态。第三，APM 是一个区别于不同厂家的技术，这意味着有很多或者类似的错误在一个型号的BIOS中被发现，而在另外的地方却没有解决。最后但不是只剩下的就是 APM BIOS 没有足够的地方执行复杂的电源策略，或者它很好的适应了机器的用途（or one that can adapt very well to the purpose of the machine）。

即插即用 BIOS（PNPBIOS）在很多情况下不可靠。PNPBIOS 是 16位的技术，所以操作系统为了用PNPBIOS的``接口''方法不得不用16位模拟器。

FreeBSD APM 驱动在 apm(4) 手册页中有描述。

6.15.3. 配置 ACPI

acpi.ko 驱动默认的在启动时通过 loader(8) 被加载并且不应该被编译进内核。原因是这个模块跟系统很容易的工作在一起，比方说不用为了 acpi.ko 而重新编译内核。这对更简单的测试来说很有利。另一个原因是系统启动后再启动 ACPI 不是很有用，并且在一些情况下会失败。拿不准的话只要全部禁止 ACPI 即可。这个驱动不应该而且不能被卸载，因为系统通过它跟各种各样的硬件打交道。ACPI 可以通过 acpiconf(8) 来禁止。实际上通过 ACPI 的交互可以通过 acpiconf(8) 来完成。简单的说，如果任何关于 ACPI 的信息在 dmesg(8) 的输出中，那么它很可能已经运行了。

Note: ACPI 和 APM 不能共存并且应该份开始用。后来装载的如果注意到另一个在运行将会终止执行。

最简单的表现形式是，ACPI 可以通过 acpiconf(8) 的 -s 标志和一个 1-5 的选项来使系统进入休眠状态。5 选项将会像下面动作一样让系统软关机：

# halt -p

其他选项也是可行的。查看 acpiconf(8) 手册页以获得更多信息。

6.15.4. 调试和禁止 ACPI

几乎所有在 ACPI 中的东西都是显而易见的，直到它不工作为止。作为用户来讲通常要知道有些东西工作的不太好。acpi(4) 驱动支持很多调试选项，它甚至可能有选择的关闭 ACPI 系统的一些部分。要了解更多的调试操作信息，请查阅 acpi(4) 手册页。

有时因为不同的原因，acpi.ko 必须被卸载。这只能在启动时刻通过 loader(8) 来完成。你可以在每次启动系统的时候，在 loader(8) 提示符下输入 unset acpi_load 命令，或者要停止 acpi(4) 驱动的自动装载，添加下面一行到文件 /boot/loader.conf：

exec="unset acpi_load"

FreeBSD 5.1-RELEASE 和以后的版本有一个启动菜单来控制 FreeBSD 如何被启动。其中一个选项用来关闭 ACPI。所以要关闭 ACPI 只要在菜单中选择 2. Boot FreeBSD with ACPI disabled。

Chapter 7. FreeBSD引导过程

7.1. 概述

启动电脑以及加载操作系统的过程被称为 ``引导过程'', 或者简称为 ``引导''. FreeBSD的引导过程给用户自定义启动提供了很大的伸缩性 ，你可以选择启动不同的操作系统，或者是同一系统的不同版本 及内核.

本章将详细介绍你能在FreeBSD引导过程中设置的配置选项。 这包括了引导内核、探测设备并启动 init(8) 等等之前所发生的所有事情。 这些事项一般发生在文本由白变灰时。

读完这章你将会知道:

  • FreeBSD引导系统里的各项组件, 以及它们之间的交互方式.

  • 在FreeBSD引导时给各组件配置选项以控制引导过程 .

  • device.hints(5)的基本知识.

只适用于x86: 本章只描述了运行于Intel x86 体系之上的FreeBSD的引导过程.

7.2. 引导问题

启动电脑及启动和引导操作系统构成了一个有趣的两难境地. 按照定义 , 在操作系统被启动之前计算机是无法完成任何任务的，包括运行磁盘上的程序. 如果计算机在没有操作系统的情况下 不能运行来自于磁盘上的程序而操作系统又是放在磁盘上的，那操作系统是如何启动的呢?

This problem parallels one in the book The Adventures of Baron Munchausen. A character had fallen part way down a manhole, and pulled himself out by grabbing his bootstraps, and lifting. 在以前，计算机术语bootstrap 指加载操作系统的机制,简称 ``booting''.

在x86硬件体系中，基本输入/输出系统 (BIOS) 负责加载操作系统 .为了做到这一点, BIOS 在磁盘上寻找主引导记录(MBR),而MBR必须在放置的磁盘 的特定位置. BIOS有足够的能力来读入和运行MBR, 且假使地认为MBR能完成加载操作系统的剩余任务.

如果你只安装了一个操作系统，那么一个标准的MBR就足够了 . 这个MBR先在磁盘上搜索可引导的分区 , 然后运行分区上的代码以加载操作系统的其它部分 .

如果你在磁盘上安装了多个操作系统那么你可以安装一个不同的MBR ,它能显示一张操作 系统的列表,你能从中选择启动哪个. FreeBSD 自带了一个这样的MBR, 其它的操作系统厂商亦 提供可选的MBR.

启动系统的剩余部分被分为三个阶段. 第一阶段由MBR执行,它只是使计算机进入 特定的状态然后执行第二阶段. 第二阶段稍微干得多一些. 第三阶段完成加载操作系统的任务. 工作被分为三个阶段是因为PC标准对第一第二阶段执行的程序的 大小有所限制. 把这些任务连在一起使得 FreeBSD可以提供更大伸缩性的加载器（loader） .

然后内核启动，它开始探测设备并初始化它们 . 一旦内核引导进程完成任务, 内核将控制权交给用户进程init(8), 它确认磁盘是否处于可用状态.init(8)然后开始用户级资源配置:加载文件系统启动网卡， 及粗略地启动所有FreeBSD系统加载时经常运行的进程.

7.3. MBR, 和引导阶段一，二，三

7.3.1. MBR, /boot/boot0

FreeBSD MBR放置在/boot/boot0. 这是真实MBR的一份复制品 , 真正的MBR必须放在磁盘FreeBSD区域以外的特定部分.

boot0 是非常简单的, 因为在 MBR 里的代码只有512 字节. 如果你安装了FreeBSD MBR 且装了多个操作系统，在引导时你会看到如下的内容:

Example 7-1. boot0 Screenshot

F1 DOS
F2 FreeBSD
F3 Linux
F4 ??
F5 Drive 1

Default: F2

其它操作系统, 特别是 Windows 95, 以用自己的MBR覆盖现有MBR而著称. 如果发生了这种事情,或者你想用FreeBSD的MBR覆盖现有的MBR ，你可以使用以下的命令:

# fdisk -B -b /boot/boot0 device

device是要写入MBR的设备名,比如ad0 代表第一个IDE磁盘, ad2代表第二个IDE控制器上的第一个IDE磁盘, da0代表第一个SCSI 磁盘,等等.

如果你是linux用户，你可能更喜欢使用 LILO来控制引导过程, 你可以编辑 /etc/lilo.conf文件, 或者在安装FreeBSD过程中选择 Leave The Master Boot Record Untouched . 如果你安装了FreeBSD引导管理器, 你可以启动linux然后更改 LILO 的配置文件 /etc/lilo.conf,加入以下的选项:

other=/dev/hdXY
table=/dev/hdb
loader=/boot/chain.b
label=FreeBSD

这样就可以通过 LILO来引导FreeBSD和linux. 在我们的例子中, 我们使 XY 确定驱动器号和分区 . 如果你使用的是 SCSI 驱动器, 你需要将 /dev/hdXY改成/dev/sdXY， 这里再次使用了XY 的语法. 如果你安装的两个系统在同一驱动器上，loader=/boot/chain.b选项可以 去掉.现在你可以执行/sbin/lilo -v使修改生效.

7.3.2. 第一阶段, /boot/boot1, 和第二阶段, /boot/boot2

概念上，第一，第二阶段同属于一个程序, 处于磁盘的相同区域. 但由于空间限制， 它们被分为两部分.可是你总是会一起安装它们.

它们放置在引导分区的引导扇区里.在引导扇区里能找到 boot0, MBR 以及其它用于引导系统的程序. /boot目录下的文件是真实文件的拷贝,真实文件放置在FreeBSD 文件系统之外.

boot1 非常简单,因为它再多也只能有512字节 ,只能识别储存着分区信息的disklabel, 及寻找执行 boot2.

boot2 稍微有点加强, 能够理解FreeBSD的文件系统以便于 寻找里面的文件，能提供选择内核和加载器的简单界面.

因为 loader 有着更强的功能 , 提供了一套易于使用的引导配置,boot2一般都执行loader , 但以前它的任务是直接运行内核.

Example 7-2. boot2的屏幕输出

>> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT
Default: 0:ad(0,a)/kernel
boot:

如果你要更改已安装的boot1 和 boot2 请使用命令disklabel(8).

# disklabel -B diskslice

diskslice 是用于引导的磁盘和分区, 比如 ad0s1 代表第一个IDE磁盘上的第一个分区.

dangerously dedicated如果你在disklabel(8)命令中只使用了磁盘名, 比如 ad0,就会破坏磁盘上的所有分区. 这当然不是你所希望的,所以在按下 回车之前 一定要对命令进行多次确认.

7.3.3. 第三阶段, /boot/loader

加载器(loader) 是三个阶段中的最后阶段,且是放置在 文件系统之中的, 一般是文件/boot/loader.

loader被作为一种友好的配置方式,使用了一组内建且易用的命令集. 这些命令由一个强大的多的解释器支持构建,其本身带有复杂得多的命令集 .

7.3.3.1. Loader程序流程

初始时, loader会探测控制台和磁盘,识别是从哪块盘引导的. 它会根据这些信息设置变量,启动解释器以接受通过脚本或交互方式传来的用户命令.

loader然后会读取并运行/boot/loader.rc, 默认地读取/boot/defaults/loader.conf以设置可靠的默认变量, 读取/boot/loader.conf 对这些变量作本地修改 .loader.rc 依据这些变量进行动作,加载任何被选择的模块和内核.

最后, 默认地, loader会停留10秒等待按键 ,若没有发生中断,就开始引导内核.如果被中断,用户会得到一个命令行提示符, 在这里用户得更改变量, 卸载所有模块, 加载模块,最后引导 或重新引导.

7.3.3.2. Loader 内建的命令

这些是最常用的loader命令.对所有可用命令的解释请参见 loader(8).

autobootseconds

在给定的时间内如果没有中断发生就引导内核.它显示一个倒数计时,默认的时间 范围是10秒.

boot [-options] [kernelname]

立即按照给定的选项(如果有的话)和内核名(如果是内核的)引导内核 .

boot-conf

基于变量对各种模块进行自动配置（和引导内核时发生的一样）. 你只须记住要先使用 unload命令，然后修改一些 变量,比如 kernel.

help [topic]

显示从文件/boot/loader.help读取的帮助信息.如果给定 的主题是 index,那么列出来的是所有可用的主题.

include filename ...

通过给定的文件名处理文件. 文件被读入，然后被一行一行地 解释. 任何错误都会立即中止include命令.

load [-t type] filename

加载内核, 内核模块,或者是给定类型的文件（通过给定的文件名）.任何在 文件名后面的参数都会被传给文件.

ls [-l] [path]

显示给定路径或者是根目录（如果路径没有指定)下面的文件列表. 如果指定了 -l 选项, 文件大小也会显示.

lsdev [-v]

列出所有可以加载模块的设备 如果指定了-v选项 ,会列印出更多的细节.

lsmod [-v]

显示已被加载的模块. 如果指明了 -v 选项, 会显示更多的细节.

more filename

显示指定的文件，每隔LINES 停顿一次 .

reboot

立即重启系统.

set variable, set variable=value

设置loader的环境变量.

unload

移除所有已被加载的模块.

7.3.3.3. Loader 示例

这里有一些实际中loader用法的示例

  • 只是简单的引导默认内核,不同的是进入单用户模式:

    boot -s

  • 卸载默认内核和模块,然后加载旧的（或者其它)的内核:

    unload
load kernel.old

    你可以使用被称为一般内核的kernel.GENERIC, 或者你以前安装的内核 kernel.old (当你升级或配置了你自己的内核，etc.).

    Note: 使用以下命令加载常用的模块和另一个内核:

    unload
set kernel="kernel.old"
boot-conf

  • 加载内核配置脚本 :

    load -t userconfig_script /boot/kernel.conf

7.4. 内核在引导时的交互

一旦内核被 loader (一般情况下)或者 boot2 (越过loader)加载, 它将检查 引导标志 ,如果有的话，就会进行必要的动作调整.

7.4.1. 内核引导标志

这里是一些常用的引导标志:

-a

在内核初始化时,询问作为根加载的设备.

-C

从CDROM引导.

-c

运行UserConfig,(引导时的内核配置器)

-s

引导进入单用户模式

-v

在内核引导过程中显示更有的信息

Note: 还有更多的引导标志,阅读boot(8) 以获取有关它们的信息.

7.5. Device Hints

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

Note: 这是FreeBSD 5.0及其以后版本的组件，不存在于早前的版本中.

在初始化系统启动时,loader(8) 会读取 device.hints(5)文件.这个文件以变量的形式储存着内核引导信息,有 时被称为 ``device hints''.设备驱动程序用``device hints'' 对设备进行配置.

Device hints 也可以在 第三阶段的boot loader的命令行提示符中指定.变量可以用 set命令添加, unset命令删除, show 命令查看. 在文件/boot/device.hints 设置的变量亦可以在这里被覆盖. 键入boot loader中的变量不是永久性的，在下次启动时就会被忘记.

一旦系统引导成功, kenv(1) 命令可以用来清楚所有的变量.

文件/boot/device.hints 的语法是一行一个变量, 使用``#'' 作为注释标记. 行是按照如下方式组织的:

hint.driver.unit.keyword="value"

第三阶段boot loader的语法是:

set hint.driver.unit.keyword=value

driver 是设备驱动程序名, unit 是设备驱动程序单位名, keyword 是hint关键字. 关键字可以由以下选项组成:

  • at:指明设备所绑定的总线

  • port:指明所使用I/O 的起始地址.

  • irq: 指明所使用的中断请求号.

  • drq: 指明 DMA channel号

  • maddr: 指明设备占用的物理内存地址.

  • flags: 给设备设置各种标志位.

  • disabled: 如果设成1，设备被禁用.

设备驱动程序能够接受更多的hints,推荐你参看它们的手册页. 参看device.hints(5), kenv(1), loader.conf(5), and loader(8)手册页以获取更多的信息.

7.6. Init:进程控制及初始化

一旦内核完成引导, 它就把控制权交给了用户进程 init(8),它放置在/sbin/init, 或者init_path变量指定的程序路径中. 这个变量是在 loader里面设置的.

7.6.1. 自动重启队列

自动重启队列保证了可用的文件系统是稳定的. 如果不是,且fsck(8)不能 修复这些错误, init(8) 会进入单用户模式 以便系统管理员直接解决问题.

7.6.2. 单用户模式

此模式可以通过 自动重启队列或者通过带有 -s选项的用户引导或通过在loader 里设置boot_single变量等多种方式来达到 .

也可以在多用户模式下调动无reboot(-r)选项和 halt (-h)选项的shutdown(8)命令来进入单用户 模式.

如果系统控制台 在文件/etc/ttys中被设置为 不安全(insecure),在初始化单用户模式前会出现要求输入root 密码的命令行提示符.

Example 7-3. 在/etc/ttys文件中的不安全控制台

# name  getty                           type    status          comments
#
# If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password # when going to single-user mode.
console none                            unknown off insecure

Note: 把控制台设置成不安全(insecure)使只知道root密码的 人才能进入单用户模式因为你认为控制台在物理上是不安全的.因此如果你考虑到安全性, 请选择不安全(insecure),而非 安全(secure).

7.6.3. 多用户模式

如果init(8) 发现你的文件系统一切正常, 又或者用户在单用户模式完成了工作,系统就会进入 多用户模式，开始系统的资源配四置.

7.6.3.1. 资源配置(rc)

资源配置分别从文件/etc/defaults/rc.conf,/etc/rc.conf 读取默认配置,和细节配置.然后加载在文件/etc/fstab中提及的文件系统, 启动网络服务,启动各种系统守护进程, 最后启动本地安装包的启动脚本.

rc(8)手册页是关于资源配置的很好的参考.

7.7. shutdown 队列

由命令shutdown(8)的控制, init(8) 会试着运行/etc/rc.shutdown脚本, 给所有进程发送TERM 信号, 然后给不按时停止的进程发送 KILL信号 .

在支持电源管理的体系上安闭FreeBSD系统的电源,只要简单的使用命令 shutdown -p now立即关闭电源. 使用命令 shutdown -r now重启FreeBSD.要执行shutdown(8) 你必须是root用户或operator 组的成员. 也可以使用 halt(8)和 reboot(8) 命令来关闭系统, 请参看它们的手册页以获得更多的信息.

Note: 电源管理需要支持，在reeBSD 5.X中要求内核支持acpi(4)或以模块加载,在FreeBSD 4.X中 需要apm(4)的支持.

Chapter 8. 用户和基本的帐户管理

Contributed by Neil Blakey-Milner.

8.1. 概要

FreeBSD允许多个用户同时使用计算机. 当然,这些用户中不是很多人同时坐在同一台计算机前. [5],而是其他用户可以通过网络来使用同一台计算机以完成他们的工作.要使用系统,每个人都应该有一个帐户.

读完这章，你将了解到:

  • 在一个FreeBSD系统上不同用户帐户之间的区别.

  • 如何添加用户帐户.

  • 如何删除用户帐户.

  • 如何改变帐户细节，如用户的全名，或首选的shell.

  • 如何在每个帐户基础上设置限制，来控制像内存，CPU时钟这样的资源.

  • 如何使用组来使帐户管理更容易.

在阅读这章之前，你应当了解:

  • 了解UNIX和FreeBSD的基础知识 (Chapter 3).

8.2. 介绍

所有访问系统的用户都是通过帐户完成的，所以用户和帐户管理是FreeBSD系统不可或缺的重要部分.

每个FreeBSD系统的帐户都有一些和它相对应的信息去验证它.

用户名

用户名在login: 提示符的后面键入. 用户名对于一台计算机来讲是唯一的; 你不可以使用两个相同的用户名来登陆. 有很多用来创建正确用户名的规则, 可以看看passwd的联机手册 passwd(5); 你使用的用户名通常需要8个或更少的小写字母.

口令

每个帐户都有一个口令与它对应. 口令可以是空的, 这样不需要口令就可以访问系统. 这通常不是一个好主意; 每个帐户都应该有一个口令.

用户 ID (UID)

UID是系统用来识别用户的0到65536之间的数字. FreeBSD使用UID来识别用户--在工作以前.任何允许你指定一个用户名的FreeBSD命令都会把它转换成UID. 这意味着你可以用不同的用户名使用多个帐户,但它们的UID是一样的. FreeBSD会把这些帐户认定是同一个用户.

组ID (GID)

GID是用来识别用户所在的组的0到65536之间的数字. 组是一种基于用户GID而不是它们的UID的用来控制用户访问资源的机制. 这可以减少一些配置文件的大小. 一个用户也可以属于多个组.

登陆类

登陆类是对组机制的扩展,当把系统分配给不同用户时,它提供了额外的灵活性.

口令的定期更改

缺省情况下,FreeBSD不会强迫用户去改变他们的口令. 你可以在每个用户的基础上强迫执行,当一个帐户过期了,可以强迫一些或所有的用户改变他们的口令.

帐户的到期时间

缺省情况下FreeBSD不会终止帐户. 如果你正在创建帐户,你应该知道一个帐户的有效使用期限, 例如, 在学校里你会为每个学生建立一个帐户,当帐户到期了,你可以重新指定它. 帐户到期后,虽然帐户的目录和文件仍然存在,但是帐户已经不能够继续使用了.

用户的全名

用户名可以唯一地识别FreeBSD的帐户, 但它不会反映用户的全名. 这些信息可能与帐户是相关的.

主目录

主目录是用户用来启动的目录的完全路径. 一个通常的规则是把所有用户的主目录都放在/home/username下,或者/usr/home/username下. 用户将会把他们的个人文件放在他们自己的主目录下, 他们可以在那里创建任何目录.

用户 shell

Shell提供了用户用来操作系统的默认环境. 有很多不同的shell, 有经验的用户会根据他们的经验来选择自己喜好的shell.

有三种类型的帐户: 超级用户, 系统用户, and 普通用户. 超级用户帐户通常叫做root, 可以没有限制的管理系统. 系统用户运行服务. 最后, 普通用户给那些登陆系统,阅读邮件的人使用.

8.3. 超级用户帐户

超级用户帐户,通常叫做root,可以重新配置和管理系统, 在收发邮件,系统检查或编程这样的日常工作中, 尽量不要使用root权限.

这是因为不象普通用户帐户, 超级用户能够无限制地操作系统, 超级用户帐户的滥用可能会引起无法想象的灾难. 普通的用户帐户不会由于出错而破坏系统, 所以要尽可能的使用普通帐户, 除非你需要额外的特权.

在使用超级用户命令时要再三检查, 因为一个额外的空格或缺少某个字符的命令都可能会引起数据丢失.

所以, 在阅读完这章后你第一件要做的事就是,在平时使用的时候,创建一个没有特权的用户帐户. 无论你使用的是单用户还是多用户系统这样的申请都是相同的. 在这章的后面,我们将讨论如何创建一个额外的帐户和如何在普通用户和超级用户之间进行切换.

8.4. 系统帐户

系统用户是那些要使用诸如DNS,mail, web等服务的用户. 使用帐户的原因就是安全; 如果所有的用户都由超级用户来运行,那它们就可以不受约束的做任何事情.

系统帐户可以是daemon, operator, bind (域名服务), 和news. 系统管理员经常创建httpd来运行web服务器.

nobody 是普通的没有特权的系统用户. 然而,大多数与用户联系很密切的服务是使用nobody的,记的这点非常重要,这样可能使用户变的非常有特权.

8.5. 用户帐户

用户帐户是让真实的用户访问系统的主要方式, 这些帐户把用户和环境隔离, 能阻止用户损坏系统和其他用户, 在不影响其他用户的情况之下定制自己的环境.

任何人访问你的系统必须要有他们自己唯一的帐户. 这可以让你找到谁做了什么事, 并且阻止人们破坏其他用户的设置和阅读其他人的邮件等等.

每个用户能够设置他们自己的环境, 以利于他们通过改变shell,编辑器,键盘绑定和语言等适应并且更好的使用这个系统.

8.6. 修改帐户

在UNIX 的处理用户帐户的环境中有很多不同的命令可用. 最普通的命令如下, 接下来是详细使用它们的例子.

命令 摘要
adduser(8) 在命令行添加新用户.
rmuser(8) 在命令行删除用户.
chpass(1) 一个灵活的用于修改用户数据库信息的工具.
passwd(1) 一个用于修改用户口令的简单的命令行工具.
pw(8) 一个强大灵活修改用户帐户的工具.

8.6.1. 添加用户

adduser(8) 是一个简单的添加新用户的命令. 它为用户创建passwd 和 group 文件. 它也为新用户创建一个主目录, 它拷贝一个默认的配置文件(``dotfiles'') 从/usr/share/skel这个目录, 然后给新用户发送一封带欢迎信息的邮件.

在FreeBSD 5.0版本, adduser(8)命令从Perl脚本改写为shell脚本,起包装pw(8)的作用, 所以它的用法在 FreeBSD 4.X 上和FreeBSD 5.X 上稍有不同.

建立初始化配置文件, 使用 adduser -s -config_create. [6] 接下来, 我们配置adduser(8) 的默认设置, 并且建立我们的第一个普通用户帐户, 因为给普通用户创建root用户很危险 .

Example 8-1. 配置 adduser 和添加一个新用户，在FreeBSD 4.X版本

# adduser -v Use option ``-silent'' if you don't want to see all warnings and questions.
Check /etc/shells
Check /etc/master.passwd
Check /etc/group
Enter your default shell: csh date no sh tcsh zsh [sh]: zsh Your default shell is: zsh -> /usr/local/bin/zsh Enter your default HOME partition: [/home]:
Copy dotfiles from: /usr/share/skel no [/usr/share/skel]:
Send message from file: /etc/adduser.message no
[/etc/adduser.message]: no Do not send message Use passwords (y/n) [y]: y

Write your changes to /etc/adduser.conf? (y/n) [n]: y

Ok, let's go.
Don't worry about mistakes. I will give you the chance later to correct any input.
Enter username [a-z0-9_-]: jru Enter full name []: J. Random User Enter shell csh date no sh tcsh zsh [zsh]:
Enter home directory (full path) [/home/jru]:
Uid [1001]:
Enter login class: default []:
Login group jru [jru]:
Login group is ``jru''. Invite jru into other groups: guest no
[no]: wheel
Enter password []:
Enter password again []:

Name:     jru
Password: ****
Fullname: J. Random User
Uid:      1001
Gid:      1001 (jru)
Class:
Groups:   jru wheel
HOME:     /home/jru
Shell:    /usr/local/bin/zsh
OK? (y/n) [y]: y
Added user ``jru''
Copy files from /usr/share/skel to /home/jru Add another user? (y/n) [y]: n Goodbye!
#

总的来说, 我们把默认的shell设置成zsh (一个可以在Ports Collection找到的shell), 关闭欢迎邮件. 然后保存配置,接着创建一个名为jru的帐户, 并且确信jru在wheel组里边 (它可能假定转换成了 root 用su(1) 命令.)

Note: 口令不会被回显, 也不会用星号来显示. 确保两次输入口令时不要输错.

Note: 从现在起,只要使用adduser(8) 你不必改变默认设置. 如果你要求改变默认设置,先退出程序, 然后使用-s 选项.

Example 8-2. 添加一个新用户在FreeBSD 5.X版本

# adduser
Username: jru
Full name: J. Random User Uid (Leave empty for default):
Login group [jru]:
Login group is jru. Invite jru into other groups? []: wheel Login class [default]:
Shell (sh csh tcsh zsh nologin) [sh]: zsh Home directory [/home/jru]:
Use password-based authentication? [yes]:
Use an empty password? (yes/no) [no]:
Use a random password? (yes/no) [no]:
Enter password:
Enter password again:
Lock out the account after creation? [no]:
Username   : jru
Password   : ****
Full Name  : J. Random User
Uid        : 1001
Class      :
Groups     : jru wheel
Home       : /home/jru
Shell      : /usr/local/bin/zsh
Locked     : no
OK? (yes/no): yes
adduser: INFO: Successfully added (jru) to the user database.
Add another user? (yes/no): no Goodbye!
#

8.6.2. 删除用户

你可以使用rmuser(8) 从系统中完全删除一个用户. rmuser(8) 执行如下步骤:

  1. 删除用户的 crontab(1) 记录 (如果有的话).

  2. 删除属于用户的at(1) 工作.

  3. 杀掉属于用户的所有进程.

  4. 删除本地口令文件中的用户.

  5. 删除用户的主目录 (如果他有自己的主目录).

  6. 删除来自 /var/mail属于用户的邮件.

  7. 删除所有诸如 /tmp的临时文件存储区中的文件.

  8. 最后, 删除 /etc/group中所有属于组的该用户名.

    Note: 如果一个组变成空，而组名和用户名一样,组将被删除. adduser(8)命令建立每个用户唯一的组.



rmuser(8) 不能用来删除超级用户的帐户, 因为那样做是对系统极大的破坏.

缺省情况下, 使用交互模式, 这样能够让你清楚的知道你在做什么.

Example 8-3. 删除用户 交互模式下的帐户删除

# rmuser jru Matching password entry:
jru:*:1001:1001::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/zsh Is this the entry you wish to remove? y Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y Updating password file, updating databases, done.
Updating group file: trusted (removing group jru -- personal group is empty) done.
Removing user's incoming mail file /var/mail/jru: done.
Removing files belonging to jru from /tmp: done.
Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp: done.
Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp/vi.recover: done.
#

8.6.3. chpass

chpass(1) 可以改变用户的口令, shells, 和包括个人信息在内的数据库信息.

只有系统管理员, 既超级用户, 才可以用chpass(1)改变其他用户口令和信息.

除了可选择的用户名, 不需要任何选项, chpass(1) 显示一个包含用户信息的编辑器. 可以试图改变用户在数据库中的信息.

Note: 在 FreeBSD 5.X版本, 编辑退出后,你应该索要你的口令,如果你不是超级用户的话.

Example 8-4. 以超级用户交互执行 chpass 命令

#Changing user database information for jru.
Login: jru
Password: *
Uid [#]: 1001
Gid [# or name]: 1001
Change [month day year]:
Expire [month day year]:
Class:
Home directory: /home/jru
Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh
Full Name: J. Random User
Office Location:
Office Phone:
Home Phone:
Other information:

普通用户只能改变他们自己很少的一部分信息.

Example 8-5. 以普通用户交互执行 chpass 命令

#Changing user database information for jru.
Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh
Full Name: J. Random User
Office Location:
Office Phone:
Home Phone:
Other information:

Note: chfn(1) 和 chsh(1) 只连接到 chpass(1), 同样的是 ypchpass(1), ypchfn(1), 和ypchsh(1). NIS 是自动支持的, 不一定要在命令前指定 yp. 如果这让你有点不太懂, 不必担心, NIS 将在 Chapter 19介绍.

8.6.4. passwd命令

passwd(1) 是改变你自己作为一个普通用户口令或者作为超级用户口令常用的方法.

Note: 用户改变口令前必须键入原来的口令, 防止用户离开终端时非授权的用户进入改变合法用户的口令.

Example 8-6. 改变你的口令

% passwd Changing local password for jru.
Old password:
New password:
Retype new password:
passwd: updating the database...
passwd: done

Example 8-7. 改变其他用户的口令同超级用户的一样

# passwd jru Changing local password for jru.
New password:
Retype new password:
passwd: updating the database...
passwd: done

Note: 就象 chpass(1)一样, yppasswd(1) 只是一个到 passwd(1)的连接, 所以NIS用任何一个命令都可以正常工作.

8.6.5. pw命令

pw(8) 是一个用来创建,删除,修改,显示用户和组的命令行工具. 它还有系统用户和组文件编辑器的功能. pw(8)有一个非常强大的命令行选项设置, 但新用户可能会觉得它比这儿讲的其它命令要复杂很多.

8.7. 限制用户使用系统资源

如果你有一些用户, 并且想要对他们所使用的系统资源加以限制. FreeBSD 提供了一些系统管理员限制用户访问系统资源的方法. 这些限制通常被分为两种: 磁盘配额, 和其它资源限制.

磁盘配额限制用户对磁盘的使用, 而且它还提供一种快速检查用户使用磁盘数量而不需要时刻计算的方法. 配额将在 Section 12.12讨论.

其它资源限制包括CPU,内存的数量和用户可能会使用的其它资源. 这些是通过对登陆进行分类完成的,下面将做讨论.

登陆的类由/etc/login.conf文件定义. 比较精确的描述超出了本章的范围, 但 login.conf(5) 联机手册会有比较详细的描述. 可以说每个用户都分配到一个登陆类(预设是 default), 每个登陆类都有一套和它相对应的功能. 登陆功能是 名字=值 的配对, 其中名字 是一个众所周知的标识符, 值 是一个根据名字经过处理得到的任意字符串. 设置登陆类和功能相当的直接,在 login.conf(5)联机手册会有比较详细的描述.

资源限制与普通登陆限制是有区别的. 首先, 对于每种限制, 有软限制(比较常见)和硬限制之分. 一个软限制可能被用户调整过, 但不会超过硬限制. 越往后可能越低, 但不会升高. 其次, 绝大多数资源限制会分配每个进程给一个特殊用户, 而不是用户的全部进程. 注意, 这些区别是资源限制的特殊操作所规定的, 不是登陆功能框架的完成(也就是说, 他们实际上 不是一个登陆功能的特例).

不再罗嗦了, 下面是绝大多数资源限制的例子 (与其它所有登陆功能相关的内容, 你也许可以在login.conf(5)找到).

coredumpsize

很明显,由程序产生的核心文件大小的限制在磁盘使用上是属于其它限制的(例如, 文件大小, 磁盘配额). 不过, 既然用户自己无法产生核心文件,而且经常不删除它们, 设置这个可以尽量避免由于一个大型应用程序的崩溃所造成的大量磁盘空间的浪费. (例如, emacs) crash.

cputime

这是一个用户程序所能消耗掉的最大CPU时钟数量. 一些不理想的进程会被内核杀掉.

Note: 这是一个有关CPU消耗的时钟 限制, 不是top(1) 和 ps(1)命令时屏幕上显示的CPU消耗的百分比. 在写此说明时, 后者的限制是是不太可能和没有价值的: 一个编译器--编译一个可能是合法的工作--可以在某一时刻轻易的用掉100%的CPU.



filesize

这是用户可以处理一个文件的最大值.不象磁盘配额, 这个限制是对单个文件强制执行的, 不是用户自己的所有文件.

maxproc

这是一个用户可以运行的最大进程数. 这包括前台和后台进程,很明显,这不可能比系统指定kern.maxproc的限制要大 sysctl(8). 同时也要注意,设置的过小会妨碍用户的处理能力: 可能需要多次登陆或执行多个管道. 一些任务, 例如编译一些大的程序, 也可能会产生很多进程 (例如,make(1), cc(1), 和其它一些预处理程序).

memorylocked

这是一个进程可能会被锁定到主存中的最大内存数量 (例如, 见 mlock(2)). 一些大型程序, 象amd(8), 在遇到问题时,它们得到的巨大交换量无法传递给系统进行处理.

memoryuse

这是在给定时间内一个进程可能消耗的最大内存数量. 它包括核心内存和交换内存. 在限制内存消耗方面,这不是一个完全的限制,但它是一个好的开始.

openfiles

这是一个进程可以打开的最大文件数. 在FreeBSD中, 文件可以被表现为套接字和IPC通道; 注意不要把这个数设置的太小. 更详尽的限制是由 kern.maxfiles定义的,见sysctl(8).

sbsize

这是网络内存数量的限制, 这可以通过创建许多套接字来生成一些针对老式DOS攻击的回应, 但它通常用来被限制网络通信.

stacksize

这是一个进程堆栈可能达到的最大值. 它不能单独的限制一个程序可能使用的内存数量; 所以, 它被用来和其它的限制手段配合使用.

在设置资源限制时,有一些其他的事需要记住. 下面是一些通常的技巧, 建议和注意事项.

  • 系统启动的进程/etc/rc会被指派给 守护程序 的登陆类.

  • 虽然/etc/login.conf文件是一个对绝大多数限制做合理配置的资源文件, 但只有你, 系统管理员, 才知道什么最适合你的系统. 设置的太高可能会因为过于开放而造成系统的被人滥用, 设置的过低则会效率很低.

  • 使用X Window的用户可能要比其他用户使用更多的资源. 因为X11本身就使用很多资源, 但它可以让用户同时运行更多程序.

  • 要记得许多限制会被用于单独的处理进程, 不是所有的用户. 例如, 设置 openfiles为50,意味着每个用户进程最高只能打开50个文件. 然而, 用户可以打开的文件的总的大小是根据maxproc值逐步增加的openfiles值. 这也会影响内存的消耗.

有关资源限制,登陆类的更深入信息可以查看相关联机手册: cap_mkdb(1), getrlimit(2), login.conf(5).

8.8. 个性化用户设置

本地化是由系统管理员或用户设置的的一个环境,它可以用来调整不同的语言,字符设置,始终标准等. 这将在本地化一章做详细讨论.

8.9. 组

组简单的讲就是一个用户列表. 组通过组名和GID (Group ID)来识别. 在FreeBSD(和其它绝大多数 UNIX 系统)中, 这两个因素通常被内核用来决定一个被允许执行的进程是否是他的用户ID, 一个进程有一个和它相关联的组的列表. 你可能听说过一些一个用户或进程的``组 ID''的事情; 大多数情况下, 这只意味着在列表中的第一个组.

与组ID对应的组名在/etc/group中. 这是一个由冒号来界定的文本文件. 第一部分是组名, 第二部分是加密后的口令, 第三部分是组ID, 第四部分是以逗号相隔的成员列表. 它可以用手工方式进行编辑 (有点危险, 不过,假如你不出语法错误的话!). 对于更完整的语法描述,见group(5) 联机手册.

假如你想要手工编辑/etc/group, 你可以使用pw(8) 添加和编辑组. 例如, 要添加一个叫teamtwo的组,确定它存在:

Example 8-8. 使用pw(8)添加一个组

# pw groupadd teamtwo # pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:

上面的数字1100是组teamtwo的组ID. 在这里,teamtwo 没有成员, 它也就没有多大用处. 让我们把jru用户加入到teamtwo组.

Example 8-9. 使用pw(8)在组中添加用户

# pw groupmod teamtwo -M jru # pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:jru

使用-M参数是为了用逗号划分一个组成员中的用户列表. 在前面的部分, 我们知道口令文件也会为每个用户包含一个组. 后来用户被自动的添加到组列表里; 当我们使用groupshow 命令时pw(8)用户列表不被显示出来. 但是当我们通过queriedid(1) 或者类似工具查看时,用户列表会被显示. 换句话说, pw(8) 命令只能读取/etc/group 文件; 它从不尝试从/etc/passwd文件读取更多信息.

Example 8-10. 使用id(1)来决定组成员

% id jru
uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo)

正如你所看到的, jru是组jru 和组 teamtwo的成员.

有关pw(8)的更多信息,请参看其它联机手册.更多的关于/etc/group文件格式的信息, 可参考group(5) 联机手册.

Chapter 9. 配置FreeBSD的内核

Updated and restructured by Jim Mock. Originally contributed by Jake Hamby.

9.1. 摘要

内核是FreeBSD操作系统的核心。它用来管理内存，执行 安全控制，网络，磁盘访问等等。虽然现在FreeBSD可以更多地 进行动态配置，但有时你还是需要重新配置和编译你的内核。

读完这章，你将了解到：

  • 为什么需要建立一个定制的内核。

  • 如何写一个内核配置文件，或修改已存在的配置文件。

  • 如何使用内核配置文件创建和建立一个新的内核。

  • 如何安装一个新内核。

  • 如何在/dev中创建设备节点。

  • 如何出现问题怎么办。

9.2. 为什么需要建立一个定制的内核?

通常，FreeBSD有一个叫做``巨大''的内核。 这意味着内核是一个巨大的程序，支持一系列的设备， 如果你想要修改内核的行为，就必须重新编译一个新的内核， 然后用新内核启动系统。

今天，FreeBSD 已经将内核的功能分成了很多的模块， 可以动态地加载和卸载内核模块。这样就可以快速地调整 内核以支持新加入的设备(如在手提计算机中的PCMCIA卡)， 或加入最初内核编译时没有加入的功能。通俗地来讲， 这种功能叫做KLDs.

虽然这样，作一些静态内核的配置也是必需的。有时， 由于有些功能与内核的联系非常紧密，所以它不能被动态地加载。 另外，有些人不太愿意为实现某些功能而写一个动态加载的 内核模块，编译一个静态内核可能更简单。

定制内核基本上是每一个UNIX用户必须经历的一关。这样做 将会对你的FreeBSD系统带来很多好处。不像 GENERIC内核， 它需要支持很广泛的硬件设备，而定制的内核将只支持你机器的硬件设备， 这样会带来很多好处：

  • 快速启动。既然系统内核只检测你机器上的硬件，那它所花费的 启动时间将大大减少。

  • 较少的内存使用。一个定制的内核会比GENERIC内核使用较少的内存。 这一点非常重要，因为内核在处理时必须经常使用内存。所以，一个定制的 内核对于内存较少的机器来说是非常有用的。

  • 额外的硬件支持。一个定制的内核允许你加入像声卡之类设备的支持， 而这恰恰是GENERIC内核所做不到的。

9.3. 建立并安装一个定制的内核

首先，让我们先来看一下建立内核的目录。所有提到的目录都在 /usr/src/sys中，也可以通过/sys访问。 有许多子目录充当了内核的不同部分，但最重要的是arch/conf， 你可以在这儿配置内核，然后进行编译。这里的arch 可能是i386， alpha或者pc98 (PC硬件发展分支的一种选择, 在日本很流行). 在一个特殊的架构目录中，所有的东西都只为这个架构服务的，其他部分的代码 是与所有平台共享的；注意一下这个目录的逻辑结构，所有支持的硬件驱动程序、 文件系统、参数选项，都放在各自的目录下。FreeBSD5.X和以上版本已经支持 sparc64, 和一些其他的还在发展的架构。

Note: 如果在你的系统上没有/usr/src/sys这个目录, 那么内核源代码就没有被安装。最简单的方法是以root身份执行/stand/sysinstall， 选择Configure， 接着是Distributions， 下来src， 最后sys。 如果你已经有一张``官方''FreeBSD系统安装盘;并且你有权限使用 光驱,那么你也可以通过下面命令行来安装源代码:

# mount /cdrom
# mkdir -p /usr/src/sys
# ln -s /usr/src/sys /sys
# cat /cdrom/src/ssys.[a-d]* | tar -xzvf -

接下来， 切换到arch/conf 目录下面， 拷贝GENERIC配置文件，并给这个文件起一个容易辨认的名称， 它就是你的内核名称。例如：

# cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf
# cp GENERIC MYKERNEL

通常，这个名称是大写的，如果你正维护着多台不同硬件的FreeBSD机器， 以你机器的域名来命名是非常好的主意。我们把它命名为MYKERNEL就是这个原因。

Tip: 保存你的内核配置文件到目录/usr/src是个坏注意. 如果你正在体验系统，有可能你打算仅仅删掉/usr/src然后从新开始. 你这样做完5秒种后你才意识到你已经删掉了你定制的内核配置文件。 不要直接编辑GENERIC，因为在你下次更新你的源码树， 你所做的内核修改会被覆盖掉。

你可以把你的内核配置文件到某个地方，然后建立符号链接到i386目录。

例如：

# cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf
# mkdir /root/kernels
# cp GENERIC /root/kernels/MYKERNEL   
# ln -s /root/kernels/MYKERNEL

Note: 你必须以root帐号执行这些和接下来命令，否则你会得到permission denied errors。

现在，用你喜欢的编辑器编辑MYKERNEL 。 如果你刚刚开始，那唯一能用的编辑器可能就是vi， 它由于太复杂而不在这儿介绍了，但在参考书目中有许多书会介绍到它。 然而，FreeBSD中最容易的编辑器是ee，如果你是一个初学者， 它是一个非常好的选择。你可以很自由地改变注释行来反映你的配置情况， 或和GENERIC相比所做的变化。

如果你在SunOS或者其他BSD系统下定制过内核，那这个文件中的绝大部分将对你非常熟悉。 如果你使用的是诸如DOS这样的系统，那GENERIC配置文件看起来就非常困难， 所以在下面的 配置文件章节将慢慢地、仔细地进行介绍。

Note: 要经常检查/usr/src/UPDATING, 在你执行任何更新步骤之前， 记得用最新发布的源代码同步你的源码树 在这个文件所有重要的更新事件都会记下来；/usr/src/UPDATING总是 符合你的FreeBSD源代码版本，而且总是比手册所说的信息更加精确。

你现在必须编译内核的源代码。你可能需要执行两种方法， 这依赖于你如何重新编译内核，和你正使用的FreeBSD的版本。

  • 如果你只安装内核源代码，使用方法1。

  • 如果你运行的是FreeBSD4.0以前的版本的话，而且你不升级到 FreeBSD 4.0或更高版本，只要使用方法1。

  • 如果你在没有升级源代码的情况下编译一个新内核（也许你只想为内核添加一个新的选项， 如IPFIREWALL），可以使用任何一种方法。

  • 如果你正在重建的内核是作为make world进程的一部分，需要使用方法2。

方法1. 用``传统''方法建立一个内核

  1. 运行config(8)来产生内核源代码。

    # /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL

  2. 切换到建立内核的目录。

    # cd ../compile/MYKERNEL

    对于FreeBSD 版本低于5.0,用下面的代替：

    # cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL

  3. 编译内核。

    # make depend
# make

  4. 安装新内核。

    # make install

方法2. 用``新的''方法建立一个内核

  1. 切换到/usr/src 目录。

    # cd /usr/src

  2. 编译内核。

    # make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL

  3. 安装新内核。

    # make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL

Note: 在FreeBSD 4.2老版本里面你必须用KERNEL= 来替换KERNCONF=。2001年2月2日以后生成的4.2-STABLE 就可以认出KERNCONF=。

如果你还没有通过任何方法升级你的源码树 (你应该运行CVSup, CTM,或者使用 anoncvs), 然后你应该按下面的顺序执行： config, make depend, make, make install。

新内核将会被拷贝到 /kernel 而旧的内核被移到/kernel.old。 现在，关闭系统，然后重新用你的新内核启动系统，如果出现错误，这章后面有一些 故障的解决方法。 如果新内核不能引导，请务必读一下有关如何恢复的章节.

Note: 对于FreeBSD5.0, 内核将连同他的模块安装在/boot/kernel,并且老 内核会被备份到/boot/kernel.old.和引导进程相关的其他文件比如 loader(8)以及配置文件也都安装到了/boot。 第3方的或者定制的内核模块被放在/boot/modules,用户应该意识到保持内核模块和 编译好的内核同步是非常重要的。内核模块和内核不同步将导致不稳定和错误。

Note: 如果你已经添加了新的设备(比如声卡)并且你正在运行FreeBSD 4.X或者更老的版本 你将不得不在/dev添加这些设备节点。更多的信息, 请参考章节后面的 Making Device Nodes。

9.4. 配置文件

内核配置文件的格式是很简单的，每一行包含了一个关键词与一个或多个参数， 而大多数的设置都只包含一个参数。#后面的文字是注释，会被忽略掉。 下面的每个小节，将依次介绍每个列在GENERIC中的参数， 虽然各相关主题(比如网络)的关键词会放在同一小节，但是这些关键词可能位于 GENERIC文件的很多地方。 透彻的选项列表和关于设备列表的更详细的解释出现在 LINT配置文件, 和GENERIC文件在同一个目录。 如果你不能确定某一行设定是否需要请先参考LINT文件。

Note: 在FreeBSD5.X和更高的版本LINT将不存在。关于架构依赖的选项 请看NOTES。一些选项, 主要就是架构依赖的选项在/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES 文件里面，当然了，在这里复习这些选项也是明智的。

下面是一个带有很多额外注释的GENERIC内核配置文件 的例子。这个例子与/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC很相似。 有关内核配置的最详细的选项，请参看/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT。

#
# GENERIC -- Generic kernel configuration file for FreeBSD/i386
#
# For more information on this file, please read the handbook section on
# Kernel Configuration Files:
#
#    http://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig-config.html
#
# The handbook is also available locally in /usr/share/doc/handbook
# if you've installed the doc distribution, otherwise always see the
# FreeBSD World Wide Web server (http://www.FreeBSD.org/) for the
# latest information.
#
# An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the
# device lines is also present in the ../../conf/NOTES and NOTES files. 
# If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first 
# in NOTES.
#
# $FreeBSD: src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC,v 1.380 2003/03/29 13:36:41 mdodd Exp $

下面这个选项在每个中都要有：

machine        i386

这是机器的架构。它可能是i386, pc98, sparc64, alpha, ia64, amd64, 或者 powerpc。

cpu          I486_CPU
cpu          I586_CPU
cpu          I686_CPU

面的选项指出了在你的系统中所用的CPU类型。你可以使用多个CPU类型(例如： 你不能确定使用的是I586_CPU还是I686_CPU), 然而，对于一个定制的内核，最好是只指定你所拥有的CPU类型。如果你不能确定CPU类型， 可以通过文件/var/run/dmesg.boot来看你的启动信息。

在FreeBSD的内核里面仍然支持I386_CPU，但是在-STABLE和 -CURRENT里面缺省已经被禁用了。这就意味着安装FreeBSD在386-class的cpu， 一般有下面几种情况：

  • 安装一个老的FreeBSD release并且按照Section 9.3从源码重建系统.

  • 在一个新的机器上构建用户和内核程序，然后用已经编译好的/usr/obj下的文件 安装到386的机器上(详细情况看Section 21.5)。

  • 用支持I386_CPU内核的FreeBSD的release光盘安装

这几种情况里面的第一种是最容易的，当是你需要很大的磁盘空间，而这在386-class机器上是很难找到的。

ident          GENERIC

这是一个内核的标识符。 你应该自己命名一个容易辨认的名称，比如MYKERNEL。 放在ident后的参数，将在你用这个内核启动时显示在屏幕上。 如果你同时设置了几个内核，采用不同的名称是个不错的主意。（例如，你想定制一个实验性质的内核）。

maxusers          n

这个 maxusers 选项设置了重要系统表的大小。 这个数值粗略地假设你的机器同时会有多少用户。

从FreeBSD 4.5开始，如果手动设置这个值为0系统将会自动赋值。[7]. 在FreeBSD 5.X里面，maxusers 如果没有定义，将缺省为 0。如果你使用的FreeBSD早于4.5, 或者你想自己设置这个值， 那么你至少要设置maxusers为4, 特别是你要执行X Window或是编译程序。 原因是maxusers值决定了系统同时可有多少个进程(process)， 其算法是20 + 16 * maxusers，所以如果你设置maxusers为1， 则你的系统只能同时存在36个进程，包括18个(或更多)系统启动要占去的进程。 如果你执行了X Window，则又要用掉15个以上。甚至阅读一个man page也会使用九个进程来过滤、解压缩、然后显示文件。 设置maxusers到64将允许你有1044个进程，对任何人应该都是足够的。 当你执行程序时， 得到像是proc table full这样的错误信息， 或者你要建一个同时会有很多人来访问的网站（比如ftp.FreeBSD.org）时， 你就要增加这个设置的值，然后重新编译内核。

Note: maxusers这个选项并不限制可以登陆你系统的用户数目。 它只是系统中用户可以最多执行的程序个数。 有一个关键词的值则真的限制了可以同时 远程登入和X terminal windows的人数：pseudo-device pty 16。

# Floating point support - do not disable.
device          npx0     at nexus? port IO_NPX irq 13

npx0是FreeBSD中浮点运算处理器的一个接口， 不论你用硬件的浮点运算处理器还是使用软件仿真，都需要这个设置。 这个设置不是可有可无的。

# Pseudo devices - the number indicates how many units to allocate.
pseudo-device   loop          # Network loopback

这是TCP/IP的通用回环伪设备,如果你telnet或者FTP到localhost (a.k.a., 127.0.0.1)，它将通过这个伪设备回到本机。 这个伪设备强烈要求保留。

接下来的那些项有一个或多个选项，关于每个选项的更多的信息参考下面注释。

#To statically compile in device wiring instead of /boot/device.hints
#hints          "GENERIC.hints"         #Default places to look for devices.

在FreeBSD 5.X和更新的版本里面，device.hints(5)被用来配置设备驱动选项。 在启动的时候loader(8)将会检查缺省位置/boot/devicehints。 使用hints选项你就可以把这些hints静态编译进内核。 这样就没有必要在/boot下创建devicehints。

#makeoptions     DEBUG=-g          #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols

FreeBSD的普通建立过程是不包含调试信息的，建立内核的时候，在连接内核之前大部分的调试符号都被去掉了， 这样能节省安装位置的磁盘空间。如果你打算建立-CURRENT分支的测试内核，或者在FreeBSD上开发自己的内核， 你应该去掉这一行的注释，这样就打开了-g选项，传给gcc(1)后，就可以保留内核的调试信息。 如果你正在使用``传统''方法建立自己的内核（更多的信息参考Section 9.3）， 也能通过给config(8)传递-g选项达到同样的效果。

options          MATH_EMULATE      #Support for x87 emulation

如果你的计算机上没有数学协处理器（386或者486SX），这一行允许内核模拟数学协处理器。 如果你有一个486DX，或者386或者486SX（使用387或487的芯片）或者更高的cpu（Pentium®，Pentium II等）， 你可以注释掉这一行。

Note: 随FreeBSD带的普通数学协处理器模拟函数不是非常精确。 如果你没有数学协处理器，而又需要更精确的模拟，最好把这个选项改成使用GNU数学支持的GPL_MATH_EMULATE， 因为版权原因它没有被缺省的包含进来。

在FreeBSD 5.X里面, 数学模拟缺省是禁用的，因为使用不支持数学浮点的CPUs已经很少了。

options          INET          #InterNETworking

网络支持，即使你不打算连网，也请保留它，大部分的程序至少需要回环网络（就是和本机进行网络连接），所以强烈要求保留它。

options          INET6          #IPv6 communications protocols

这将打开IPv6连接协议。

options          FFS          #Berkeley Fast Filesystem
options          FFS_ROOT     #FFS usable as root device [keep this!]

这是最基本的硬盘文件系统，如果你打算从本地硬盘启动，请保留它。

Note: 在FreeBSD 5.X里面，FFS_ROOT选项不再需要了。

options          UFS_ACL      #Support for access control lists

这个选项只出现在FreeBSD 5.X，使得内核支持权限控制列表。 这要依赖于扩展属性和UFS2选项， 这些特性在Section 10.13有详细的描述。 ACLs缺省是打开的，并且如果已经使用在系统文件上， 就不应该关闭它。

options          UFS_DIRHASH  #Improve performance on big directories

通过使用额外的内存，这个选项可以加速在大目录上的磁盘操作。 你应该在大型服务器和频繁使用的工作站上打开这个选项，而在磁盘操作不是很重要的 小型系统上关闭它，比如防火墙。

options          SOFTUPDATES  #Enable FFS Soft Updates support

这个选项打开内核的Soft Updates，这将有助于加速写磁盘操作。 即使内核已经提供了这项功能，也必须给具体的磁盘打开此功能。 查看mount(8)输出，看是为给你的系统盘启用了Soft Updates。 如果你没有看到soft-updates 选项，那么你需要 通过使用tunefs(8)（对存在的文件系统）或者newfs(8)（对新文件系统）来激活它。

options          MFS          #Memory Filesystem
options          MD_ROOT      #MD is a potential root device

这是内存映射的文件系统， 提供RAM disk，以供需要快速访问的资料或是暂存资料用。 如果你分了很大的swap空间，使用这个选项可以给你不少好处。 把MFS分区挂到/tmp是一个相当好的想法，因为不少程序都会在此暂存资料。要把MFS RAM disk挂到/tmp， 可以把下面这一行加到/etc/fstab里面:

/dev/ad1s2b    /tmp mfs rw 0 0

现在你只需要启动系统，或者执行命令mount /tmp。

Note: 在FreeBSD 5.X里面，md(4)-backed UFS文件系统比MFS文件系统更有利于内存文件操作。 关于配置memory-backed文件系统的更多信息可以在手册页里面使用mdconfig(8)和mdmfs(8)以及Section 12.10。 总之，MFS选项已经不再支持了。

options          NFS          #Network Filesystem
options          NFS_ROOT     #NFS usable as root device, NFS required

网络文件系统。除非你打算通过TCP/IP挂上UNIX文件服务器的分区， 不然可以注释掉这个选项。

options          MSDOSFS      #MSDOS Filesystem

MS-DOS文件系统。除非你打算在启动的时候挂上DOS格式的硬盘分区，不然你可以安全的注释掉它。 如前所述，在你第一次挂上一个DOS分区时，内核将会自动加载模块来支持它。 此外，mtools是个相当不错的软件(可在ports里面找到)，可以让你在访问DOS磁盘时， 不需要挂上或卸载软盘(而且也不需要MSDOSFS的支持)。

options          CD9660       #ISO 9660 Filesystem
options          CD9660_ROOT  #CD-ROM usable as root, CD9660 required

CD-ROM使用的ISO 9660文件系统。如果你没有光驱，或是很少用光驱， 可以注释掉这一行(内核会在第一次加载时动态的加载模块以支持它)。音乐CD则不会用到这个文件系统。 

options          PROCFS       #Process filesystem

进程文件系统。这是一个``虚拟的''文件系统，挂在/proc下， 允许一些程序，像ps(1)来提供一些正在执行进程的信息。 在FreeBSD 5.X，大部分环境下是不需要PROCFS的，因为大部分调试和监视工具的运行已经不需要 PROCFS。此外，5.X-CURRENT的内核要使用PROCFS还必须启用PSEUDOFS 选项：

options          PSEUDOFS     #Pseudo-filesystem framework

PSEUDOFS在FreeBSD 4.X下没有。 不像FreeBSD 4.X，缺省时FreeBSD 5.X将不会挂上进程文件系统

options          COMPAT_43    #Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!]

使系统兼容4.3BSD。不要去掉这一行，不然有些程序将无法正常运行。

options          COMPAT_FREEBSD4     #Compatible with FreeBSD4

为了支持在旧版本的FreeBSD下编译的程序，该选项在FreeBSD 5.X i386和Alpha systems下需要打开。 最好在所有的i386和Alpha systems下打开这个选项，因为可能要运行老应用程序。 在5.X才开始支持的平台，比如ia64和Sparc64®，就不需要这个选项。

options          SCSI_DELAY=15000    #Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI

这行设置告诉内核等待15秒钟，以供SCSI控制器扫描你计算机上的SCSI设备。如果你只有IDE硬盘，你 可以不理会这个设置，不然你可能会想要降低这个值，也许会降到五秒，以增加启动的速度。如果你发现降低后， FreeBSD无法正确辨认你的SCSI设备，那么你应该提高这个值，延长等待时间。

options          UCONSOLE            #Allow users to grab the console

允许用户找到控制台（console）信息，对X用户很有用。举例来说， 你可以输入xterm -C来打开一个控制台xterm， 这个窗口将显示任何write、talk等命令的信息， 以及你发出去的信息。当然，kernel产生的信息也会在这里出现。

Note: 在FreeBSD 5.X里面，UCONSOLE不再需要。

options          USERCONFIG          #boot -c editor

这个选项允许你从启动菜单启动配置编辑器。

options          VISUAL_USERCONFIG   #visual boot -c editor

这个选项允许你从启动菜单启动可视配置编辑器。

Note: 从FreeBSD5.0版本以后，USERCONFIG这个选项被推荐在新方法device.hints(5)里面使用。 更多的关于device.hints(5)的信息请查看Section 7.5。

options          KTRACE              #ktrace(1) support

这个选项打开内核进程跟踪，在调试时很有用。

options          SYSVSHM             #SYSV-style shared memory

提供System V共享内存(SHM)的支持，最常用到SHM的应该是X Window的XSHM延伸， 不少绘图相关程序会自动使用SHM来提供额外的速度。如果你要使用X Window，你最好加入这个选项。

options          SYSVSEM             #SYSV-style semaphores

支持System V semaphores，不常用到，只在kernel中占用几百个字节的空间。

options          SYSVMSG             #SYSV-style message queues

支持System V messages，一样的，只占用kernel几百字节的空间。

Note: ipcs(1)命令可以显示出任何使用到上述三个System V功能的进程。

options    P1003_1B        #Posix P1003_1B real-time extensions
options     _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING

在1993年POSIX®添加的实时扩展. 在ports collection中某些应用程序会用到这些 （比如StarOffice）。

Note: 在FreeBSD 5.X,所有的这些功能都使用_KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING选项， P1003_1B选项将不再需要。

options        ICMP_BANDLIM        #Rate limit bad replies

这个选项启用ICMP的带宽限制的错误响应。使用这个选项可以帮助你保护你的机器免受拒绝式服务攻击。

Note: 在FreeBSD 5.X,这个特性是缺省的，ICMP_BANDLIM选项不再需要了。

# To make an SMP kernel, the next two are needed
#options        SMP                     # Symmetric MultiProcessor Kernel
#options        APIC_IO                 # Symmetric (APIC) I/O

上面的两个选项是支持SMP的。

device          isa

所有FreeBSD 支持的PC都需要这行设置。如果你使用IBM PS/2 (微信道架构)计算机，则FreeBSD只能提供有限的支持。 更多的信息请参考/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT文件。

device          eisa

如果你的主机板上有EISA总线，加入这个设置。使用这个选项可以自动扫描并设置所有连接在EISA总线上的设备。

device          pci

如果你的主板有PCI总线，就加入这个选项。使用这个选项可以自动扫描PCI卡，并在PCI到ISA之间建立通路。

device          agp

如果你有图形加速卡（AGP card），这个选项将打开图形加速支持。

# Floppy drives
device          fdc0        at isa? port IO_FD1 irq 6 drq 2
device          fd0         at fdc0 drive 0
device          fd1         at fdc0 drive 1

软盘控制器，fd0是A:盘，fd1是B:盘。

device          ata

这个驱动器支持所有ATA和ATAPI设备。你只要在内核中加入device ata选项， 就可以让内核支持现代计算机上的所有PCI ATA/ATAPI设备。

device          atadisk                 # ATA disk drives

这个是ATAPI 磁盘驱动器所必须的。


device          atapicd                 # ATAPI CDROM drives

这个是ATAPI CDROM驱动器所必须的。

device          atapifd                 # ATAPI floppy drives

这个是ATAPI 磁盘驱动器所必须的。

device          atapist                 # ATAPI tape drives

这个是ATAPI 磁带机驱动器所必须的.

options         ATA_STATIC_ID           #Static device numbering

T这个可以静态分配控制器的编号(比如老的驱动器），也可以动态分配设备的编号。

# ATA and ATAPI devices
device          ata0        at isa? port IO_WD1 irq 14
device          ata1        at isa? port IO_WD2 irq 15

上面的选项用在比较老的，非PCI的系统中。

# SCSI Controllers
device          ahb        # EISA AHA1742 family
device          ahc        # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices
device          amd        # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T))
device          dpt        # DPT Smartcache - See LINT for options!
device          isp        # Qlogic family
device          ncr        # NCR/Symbios Logic
device          sym        # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets)

device          adv0       at isa?
device          adw
device          bt0        at isa?
device          aha0       at isa?
device          aic0       at isa?

SCSI控制器。可以注释掉你系统中没有的设备。如果你只有IDE设备，你可以把这些一起删掉。

# SCSI peripherals
device          scbus      # SCSI bus (required)
device          da         # Direct Access (disks)
device          sa         # Sequential Access (tape etc)
device          cd         # CD
device          pass       # Passthrough device (direct SCSI
access)

SSCSI外围设备。也可以像上面一样操作。

# RAID controllers
device          ida        # Compaq Smart RAID
device          amr        # AMI MegaRAID
device          mlx        # Mylex DAC960 family

支持RAID控制器。如果你没有这些，可以把它们注释掉或是删掉。

# atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse
device          atkbdc0    at isa? port IO_KBD

键盘控制器（atkbdc）提供AT键盘输入以及PS/2指针设备的I/O服务。 键盘驱动程序（atkbd）与PS/2鼠标驱动程序（psm）需要这个控制器，所以不要删除它。

device          atkbd0     at atkbdc? irq 1

atkbd驱动程序，与atkbdc控制器一起使用， 提供连接到AT键盘控制器的AT 84键盘与AT加强型键盘的访问服务。

device          psm0       at atkbdc? irq 12

如果你的鼠标连接到PS/2鼠标端口，就使用这个设备驱动程序。

device          vga0        at isa?

显卡驱动。

# splash screen/screen saver
pseudo-device          splash

启动时的启动画面！屏幕保护也需要这个。

# syscons is the default console driver, resembling an SCO console
device          sc0          at isa?

sc0是默认的控制台驱动程序，绝大部分全屏幕程序都通过termcap 这类terminal database library来访问控制台，因此不论你用这个驱动程序 或是VT220兼容控制台驱动程序vt0，这中间并没有太大差别。 如果你登陆系统后，执行全屏幕程序时遇到问题，请将你的TERM设置成scoansi。

# Enable this and PCVT_FREEBSD for pcvt vt220 compatible console driver
#device          vt0     at isa?
#options         XSERVER          # support for X server on a vt console
#options         FAT_CURSOR       # start with block cursor
# If you have a ThinkPAD, uncomment this along with the rest of the PCVT lines
#options         PCVT_SCANSET=2   # IBM keyboards are non-std

这是一个兼容VT220的控制台驱动程序，并向下兼容VT100/102。在部分与sc0相冲突的笔记本计算机上， 这个驱动程序运作良好。当然，当你登陆系统时，记得设置TERM参数为vt100或是vt220。 当连接到网络上许多计算机时，这个驱动程序也常是很有用的，这是因为许多的计算机上 的termcap或是terminfo并没有sc0 的资料――而vt100的资料几乎所有的平台上都支持。

# Power management support (see LINT for more options)
device          apm0     at nexus? disable flags 0x20  # Advanced Power Management

高级电源管理支持。使用在膝上型计算机上。

# PCCARD (PCMCIA) support
device          card
device          pcic0    at isa? irq 10 port 0x3e0 iomem 0xd0000
device          pcic1    at isa? irq 11 port 0x3e2 iomem 0xd4000 disable

PCMCIA支持。如果你使用膝上型计算机，你需要这个。

# Serial (COM) ports
device          sio0     at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4
device          sio1     at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3
device          sio2     at isa? disable port IO_COM3 irq 5
device          sio3     at isa? disable port IO_COM4 irq 9

sio0到sio3可看作是MS-DOS/Windows系统中的COM1到COM4。

Note: 如果你使用内置式的数据机，且占用COM4，而你的系统又有COM2， 则你必须修改调制解调器的IRQ为2(IRQ 2跟IRQ 9是一样的)，这样FreeBSD才能正常使用调制解调器。 如果你有一个多口的串行卡，请看sio(4)的手册页。 部分显示卡(特别是使用S3芯片的卡)，用到0x*2e8这个I/O地址，而一些便宜的串行卡， 没办法正确译码16位的I/O寻址空间，因此两张卡会冲突，导致COM4无法正常使用。

每个串行口都要有一个唯一的IRQ（除非你使用支持共享中断的多口卡），所以COM3与COM4默认的IRQ将无法使用。

# Parallel port
device          ppc0    at isa? irq 7

ISA-bus并行接口。

device          ppbus      # Parallel port bus (required)

提供并行总线的支持。

device          lpt        # Printer

提供并口打印机的支持。

Note: 要使用并口打印机，就必须同时加入上面三行设置。

device          plip       # TCP/IP over parallel

这是针对并行网络接口的驱动器。

device          ppi        # Parallel port interface device

普通用途的I/O (``geek port'') + IEEE1284 I/O.

#device         vpo        # Requires scbus and da

这是针对Iomega Zip驱动器的。它要求scbus和da的支持。 最好的执行效果是工作在EPP 1.9模式。

# PCI Ethernet NICs.
device          de         # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (``Tulip'')
device          fxp        # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558)
device          tx         # SMC 9432TX (83c170 ``EPIC'')
device          vx         # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (``Vortex'')
device          wx         # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (``Wiseman'')

多种PCI网卡驱动器。注释或删除你系统中没有的设备.

# PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code.
device          miibus     # MII bus support

MII总线支持对于一些PCI 10/100 Ethernet NIC来说是必需的。

device          dc         # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes
device          rl         # RealTek 8129/8139
device          sf         # Adaptec AIC-6915 (``Starfire'')
device          sis        # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016
device          ste        # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX)
device          tl         # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN
device          vr         # VIA Rhine, Rhine II
device          wb         # Winbond W89C840F
device          xl         # 3Com 3c90x (``Boomerang'', ``Cyclone'')

使用MII总线控制器代码的驱动器。

# ISA Ethernet NICs.
device          ed0    at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 iomem 0xd8000
device          ex
device          ep
# WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the WaveLAN/IEEE really
# exists only as a PCMCIA device, so there is no ISA attachment needed
# and resources will always be dynamically assigned by the pccard code.
device          wi
# Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the declaration below will
# work for PCMCIA and PCI cards, as well as ISA cards set to ISA PnP
# mode (the factory default). If you set the switches on your ISA
# card for a manually chosen I/O address and IRQ, you must specify
# those parameters here.
device          an
# The probe order of these is presently determined by i386/isa/isa_compat.c.
device          ie0    at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 iomem 0xd0000
device          fe0    at isa? port 0x300
device          le0    at isa? port 0x300 irq 5 iomem 0xd0000
device          lnc0   at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 drq 0
device          cs0    at isa? port 0x300
device          sn0    at isa? port 0x300 irq 10
# requires PCCARD (PCMCIA) support to be activated
#device         xe0    at isa?

ISA以太网驱动器。看看/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT了解一下哪个卡被哪个驱动器支持。

pseudo-device   ether         # Ethernet support

如果你有一个以太网卡，ether是必需的。它包含了通用的以太网协议代码。

pseudo-device   sl      1     # Kernel SLIP

sl 是针对SLIP支持的。这已经完全被PPP所代替，它是早期使用的协议。

pseudo-device   ppp     1     # Kernel PPP

ppp提供内核模式(kernel-mode)的PPP拨号支持。 另外有一个tun则是用户模式 (user-mode)的PPP支持，tun较有弹性且功能较多。 如同sl，ppp后面的number设置系统最多同时能支持几个PPP连接。

pseudo-device   tun           # Packet tunnel.

tun是用户模式的PPP软件。tun后面接的number 设置系统同时能支持几个PPP连接。更多的信息参看PPP。


pseudo-device   pty           # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc)

这是``伪终端''或仿真的登入端口。 被telnet和rlogin连接， xterm，以及其他一些程序，比如Emacs所使用。 number设置系统的after pty个数。 系统默认值是16，如果你要提高同时连接数，可以适当增加这个数值，最高可达256个。

pseudo-device   md            # Memory ``disks''

Memory disk pseudo-devices.

pseudo-device   gif

or

pseudo-device   gif     4     # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling

这个执行IPv6与 IPv4，IPv4与IPv6，IPv4与IPv4， IPv6与IPv6之间的转换。 从FreeBSD 4.4开始gif设备是 ``auto-cloning''的，你应该使用前面那个例子（gif没有数字）。 早期版本的FreeBSD需要数字。

pseudo-device   faith   1     # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation)

这个伪设备能检测到接收到的数据包，然后把它们发送给IPv4/IPv6翻译程序。

# The `bpf' pseudo-device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter.
# Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this!
pseudo-device   bpf           # Berkeley packet filter

这是Berkeley的封包过滤器。这个伪设备允许网络接口被放在复杂的模式上， 在网络上捕获每个封包。这些封包能被磁盘捕获或被tcpdump(1)程序检查。

Note: bpf pseudo-device也被dhclient(8)使用， 用来获得默认路由(网关）的IP地址。如果你使用DHCP，不要注释掉这行。

# USB support
#device         uhci          # UHCI PCI->USB interface
#device         ohci          # OHCI PCI->USB interface
#device         usb           # USB Bus (required)
#device         ugen          # Generic
#device         uhid          # ``Human Interface Devices''
#device         ukbd          # Keyboard
#device         ulpt          # Printer
#device         umass         # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da
#device         ums           # Mouse
# USB Ethernet, requires mii
#device         aue           # ADMtek USB ethernet
#device         cue           # CATC USB ethernet
#device         kue           # Kawasaki LSI USB ethernet

支持多种USB设备.

更多有关FreeBSD支持的设备请参考/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT.

9.4.1. 大内存支持(PAE)

大内存配置的机器需要超过４GB的虚拟地址。 因为4GB的限制，Intel在Pentium及后续的CPUs上增加了36位物理地址的支持。

Intel Pentium Pro和后续的CPUs允许内存地址扩展到64GB.(PAE) FreeBSD通过PAE选项来支持这个能力。 在FreeBSD 4.X系列里面，4.9-RELEASE开始支持，FreeBSD 5.X系列里面，从5.1-RELEASE开始支持。 in the 4.X series of FreeBSD beginning with 4.9-RELEASE and in the 5.X series of FreeBSD beginning with 5.1-RELEASE。因为Intel架构的限制， 高于或低于4GB都没有什么区别，内存分配到大于4GB仅仅是增加了可利用的内存池。

为了让内核支持PAE，只要增加下面这一行到配置文件：

options            PAE

Note: PAE在FreeBSD里面现在只能支持 Intel IA-32处理器。 同时，还应该注意，FreeBSD的PAE支持没有经过广泛的测试， 和其他稳定的特性相比只能当作是beta版。

PAE在FreeBSD下有如下的一些限制：

  • 进程不能接触大于4GB的VM空间。

  • KLD 模块不能加载到一个打开了PAE支持的内核里面， 这是因为内核模块和内核的建立框架不一样。

  • 没有使用bus_dma(9)界面的设备驱动程序在打开了PAE支持的内核里面 会导致数据腐化（corruption）。因为这个原因，FreeBSD 5.X的PAE内核配置文件 把所有在打开了PAE的内核上不能工作的驱动程序排除在外。

  • 一些系统打开了探测系统内存资源使用能力的功能，因为打开了 PAE支持，这些功能可能会被覆盖掉。 其中一个例子就是内核参数kern.maxvnodes，它是控制 内核能使用的最大vnodes数目的，建议重新调整它及其他类似参数到合适的值。

  • 为了避免KVA的消耗，很有必要增加系统的内核虚拟地址， 或者减少很耗系统资源的内核选项的总量（看上面）。KVA_PAGES选项 可以用来增加KVA空间。

为了稳定和高性能，建议查看tuning(7)手册页。pae(4)手册页包含 FreeBSD'sPAE支持的最新信息。

9.5. 创建设备节点

Note: 如果你正在使用FreeBSD 5.0或者更新的版本，你可以略过这节。因为这些版本的系统使用devfs(5) 透明的为用户分配设备节点。

几乎内核中的每个设备在/dev目录都有对应的``节点''。 些节点看上去是些规则文件，但事实上是程序在使用对应的设备时，与内核联系的进入点。 当你一开始安装操作系统时，可执行的外壳脚本/dev/MAKEDEV就创建了几乎所有支持的设备。 然而，它并不是建立所有设备，所以当你加入对新设备的支持时，注意确信对应的节点在这个目录下。 如果不是，就加入它们。这儿是一个简单的例子：

假定在内核中加入了IDE CD-ROM的支持。可以这样加入：

device acd0

这意味着你应当在/dev目录下找一些以acd0为起点的入口， 通常后面有一个字母，像是以c，或者r开头，表示这是一个``raw''设备。 如果那些文件不在那儿，就必须改变到/dev目录然后键入：

# sh MAKEDEV acd0

这些脚本完成后，你要在/dev目录下确认有acd0c和 racd0c等几个入口，这表示程序已经正确执行。

以下是加入声卡节点的例子：

# sh MAKEDEV snd0

Note: 当创建完诸如声卡这样的设备节点时，如果其他人有权访问你的机器， 可能有必要在/etc/fbtab文件中添加这些节点来保护系统安全。 更多的信息参考fbtab(5)

依上述的简单程序，建立任何不在GENERIC里的硬件设备节点

Note: 所有的SCSI控制器都使用一样的设备节点，所以你无须重新建立节点。 另外，网卡与SLIP/PPP虚拟设备并没有任何设备节点，所以你不必担心怎么建立节点。

9.6. 如果出现问题怎么办

在定制一个内核时，可能会出现五种问题。它们是：

config失败：

当你在内核描述中看到config(8)命令失败， 可能在某个地方发生了一个小错误。幸运的是， config(8)会显示出错的那一行的行号，你可以用vi编辑器做修改。 例如，如果你看到：

config: line 17: syntax error

可以在vi中用命令模式输入17G来跳到17行。 比较GENERIC内核或其他参考资料，以确定你打对了关键字。

make失败：

如果make失败，通常会在你的内核描述中提示一个错误， 但config(8)并没有找出错误。 另外，查看一下你的配置信息，如果你仍然无法解决这个问题， 可以把你的内核配置信息发邮件到FreeBSD general questions 邮件列表，它将很快地被解决。

安装新内核失败：

如果内核编译没问题，但是安装失败（make install或者 make installkernel命令失败）， 第一件是检查你的系统是否运行在安全级别1或者更高（参看init(8)）。 内核安装试图从你的内核移除不可改变标志，并设置新的不可改变标志，如果安全级别是1 或者更高，这会阻止设置系统文件的不可改变标志。因此内核安装需要安全级别为0或者更低。

内核无法启动：

如果你的新内核无法启动，或无法识别你的硬件，不要担心， 幸运的是，BSD有一个解决复杂内核错误的很好机制。 你可以在系统启动进行10计数的时候按Enter以外的任何键， 接着键入unload命令，再键入boot kernel.old， 或者任何能正常启动的内核名字。当配置一个内核时，在手头保留一个能正常启动的内核是个好主意。

在用一个好的内核启动后，你可以检查一下配置文件，再设法重新建立一个内核。 一个有帮助的文件是/var/log/messages文件， 它记载了每个成功启动的所有内核信息。当然，dmesg(8)也会列出当前启动中的内核信息。

Note: 你在编译内核时，确信保留着一个GENERIC或以其他名字命名的内核。 你不能仅依靠kernel.old，因为当你安装一个新内核时， kernel.old会被上一次安装的内核所覆盖。 所以，尽快将当前正常工作的kernel移到不能正常工作的内核， 可以用ps(1)命令查一下。``解开''编译安装内核文件的正确命令是：

# chflags noschg /kernel

如果你发现你不能这样做，你的系统的安全级别可能大于0了。在/etc/rc.conf里面编辑 kern_securelevel并把它设置为-1然后重启。 当你很满意这个内核的时候，你可以再把设置改回去。

另外，如果你要``锁住''内核或其他文件，以至它不能被移动或修改 ，可以用下面的命令：

# chflags schg /kernel

在FreeBSD 5.X里面， 内核安装后不再有不可改变标志，所以上面这些问题你将不会遇到。

内核工作，但是ps(1)根本不工作:

如果你在系统中安装了一个不同版本的内核，例如，在3.x系统中安装了4.x内核， 许多系统内建的命令像ps(1)和vmstat(8)根本不工作。你必须重新编译libkvm库以及这些程序。 千万不要随意从其他系统拷贝不同版本的内核来使用。

Chapter 10. 安全

这一章的许多内容来自手册页 security(7) ，其作者是 Matthew Dillon.

10.1. 概述

这一章将对系统安全的基本概念进行介绍，除此之外，还将介绍一些好的习惯，以及 FreeBSD 下的一些更深入的话题。这章的许多内容对于一般的系统和Internet安全也适用。如今， Internet已经不再像以前那样是一个人人都愿意与你作好邻居的 ``友善'' 的 地方。让系统更加安全，将保护你的数据、智力财产、时间，以及其他很多东西不至于被 入侵者或类似人员所窃取。

FreeBSD提供了大量的工具和机制来确保你的系统和网络的安全。

读完这章，你将了解：

  • 基本的 FreeBSD 系统安全概念。

  • FreeBSD 中众多可用的密码学设施，例如 DES 和 MD5。

  • 如何设置一次性口令验证机制。

  • 如何在 FreeBSD 5.0 以前的版本上设置 KerberosIV

  • 如何在 FreeBSD 5.0 或更高版本上设置 Kerberos5。

  • 如何使用 IPFW 来创建防火墙。

  • 如何配置 IPsec 并在 FreeBSD/Windows 间建立 VPN。

  • 如何配置并使用 OpenSSH，以及 FreeBSD 的 SSH 执行方式。

  • 如何使用TrustedBSD MAC Framework来配置和加载访问控制扩展模块。

  • 系统 ACL 的概念，以及如何使用它们。

  • How to utililize the FreeBSD security advisories publications.

在开始阅读这章之前，你需要：

  • 理解基本的 FreeBSD 和 Internet 概念。

10.2. 介绍

安全是系统管理至始至终最基本的要求。由于所有的 BSD UNIX 多用户系统都有它自身内在的安全性，建立和维护额外的安全机制，确保 用户的 ``诚实'' 大概是系统管理最艰巨的工作之一。机器 仅保持着建立时最原始的安全性，而安全性必须要考虑到用户使用的便利 性。通常， UNIX 系统能够支持巨大的并发用户处理，而这些处理中绝 大部分是以服务器形式处理的 - 这意味着外部的实体能够与它们 互连和互动。昨天的小型计算机和主机变成了今天的桌面机，计算机已连 到局域网和互联网，安全就成了一个非常严峻的问题。

通过像 ``洋葱'' 那样分层的方法，能够很好地实现安全。 简而言之，你所要做的就是创建很多的安全层，然后仔细地监视系统以防入 侵。不过，过多地创建安全层可能会出现问题，你可能不希望大量地阅读检 测结果，因为检测是所有安全机制中最重要的一环。例如，在所有的系统可 执行文件上都设置 schg 标记 (参考 chflags(1)) 的意义就不大，因为尽管这也许能够暂时地保护那些执行文件，它阻止了攻 击者轻易地闯入并作一个容易被检测出来的修改，却很可能最终导致你的安 全机制根本检测不到入侵者。

系统安全也涉及到许多攻击方式，包括试图摧毁或使系统无法使用，但 并不试图窃取 root 帐号(``干掉 root'')。 安全问题主要分成以下几类：

  1. 拒绝服务攻击。

  2. 窃取其他用户的帐户。

  3. 通过可访问服务窃取root帐户。

  4. 通过用户帐户窃取root帐户。

  5. 建立后门。

拒绝式服务攻击是侵占机器所需资源的一种行为。通常， DoS 攻击 采用暴力(brute-force)手段通过压倒性的流量来破坏服务器和网络栈， 以使机器崩溃或无法使用。某些 DoS 攻击则利用在网络栈中的错误，仅 用一个简单的信息包就可以让机器崩溃，这类情况通常只能通过给内核打 补丁来修复。在一些不利的条件下，对服务器的攻击能够被修复，只要适 当地修改一下系统的选项来限制系统对服务器的负荷。顽强的网络攻击是 很难对付的。例如，一个欺骗性信息包的攻击，无法阻止入侵者切断你的 系统与Internet的连接。它不会使你的机器死掉，但它会把Internet连接 占满。

窃取用户帐户要比D.o.S.攻击更加普遍。许多系统管理员仍然在他们的 服务器上运行着基本的telnetd， rlogind，rshd 和ftpd服务。这些服务在默认情况下不会以 加密连接来操作。结果是如果你的系统有中等规模大小的用户群，在通过 远程登陆的方式登陆到你系统的用户中，一些人的口令会被人窃取。仔细 的系统管理员会从那些成功登陆系统的远程访问日志中寻找可疑的源地址。

通常必须假定，如果一个入侵者已经访问到了一个用户的帐户，那么它 就可能使自己成为 root 。然而，事实是在一个安全 和维护做得很好的系统中，访问用户的帐户不一定会让入侵者成为 root。这个差别是很重要的，因为没有成为 root 则入侵者通常是无法隐藏它的轨迹的，而且， 如果走运的话，除了让用户的文件乱掉和系统崩溃之外，它不能做什么别的 事情。窃取用户帐户是很普遍的事情，因为用户往往不会对系统管理员的警 告采取措施。

系统管理员必须牢牢记住，可能有许多潜在的方法会使他们机器上的 root 用户受到威胁。入侵者可能知道 root 的口令，而如果在以 root 权限运行的服务器上找到一个缺陷（bug）， 就可以通过网络连接到那台服务器上达到目的；另外，一旦入侵者已经侵 入了一个用户的帐户，可以在自己的机器上运行一个suid-root程序来发 现服务器的漏洞，从而让他侵入到服务器并获取 root 。 攻击者找到了入侵一台机器上 root 的途径之后， 他们就不再需要安装后门了。许多 root 漏洞被发 现并修正之后，入侵者会想尽办法去删除日志来消除自己的访问痕迹，所以 他们会安装后门。后门能给入侵者提供一个简单的方法来重新获取访问系统 的 root 权限，但它也会给聪明的系统管理员一个 检测入侵的简便方法。让入侵者无法安装后门事实上对你的系统安全是有害 的，因为这样这样并不会修复那些侵入系统的入侵者所发现的新漏洞。

安全的管理方法应当使用像 ``洋葱皮'' 一样多层次的方法来实 现，这些措施可以按下面的方式进行分类：

  1. 确保 root 和维护人员帐户的安全。

  2. 确保 root - 以root用户权限运行的服务器和suid/sgid可执行程序的安全。

  3. 确保用户帐户的安全。

  4. 确保口令文件的安全。

  5. 确保内核中内核设备、直接访问设备和文件系统的安全。

  6. 快速检测系统中发生的不适当的变化。

  7. 做个偏执狂。

这一章的下一节将比较深入地讲述上面提到的每一个条目。

10.3. 确保FreeBSD的安全

命令与协议: 在这份文档中，我们使用 粗体 来表示命令或应用程序。这一约定被用于 类似 ssh 这样的概念，因为它既可以表示命令，又可以表示协议。

下面几节中的内容将包括 前一节 中提到的那些加强 FreeBSD 安 全性的方法。

10.3.1. 确保 root 和维护人员帐户的安全

首先，如果你没有确保 root 帐户的安全， 就没必要先劳神确保用户帐户的安全了。绝大多数系统都会指派一个口令给 root 帐户。 我们的第一个假定是，口令 总是 不安全的。这并不意味着你要把口令删掉。口令通常对 访问机器的控制台来说是必须的。也就是说，你不应当让它用到控制台以外的口令，即使是使用 su(1) 命令。 例如，确信你的pty终端在 /etc/ttys 文件中被指定为 insecure (不安全)，这将使直接通 过 telnet 或 rlogin 登陆 root 会不被接受。 如果使用如 sshd 这样的其他登陆服务，确认直接登陆root也被关闭了。你可以通过 编辑 /etc/ssh/sshd_config 文件来做到这一点，确信 PermitRootLogin 被设置成 NO 。考虑到每一种访问方法 - 如FTP这样的服务，以免因为它们而导致安全性的损失。直接登陆 root 只有通过系统控制台 才被允许。

当然，作为一个系统管理员，你应当获得 root 身份，因此，我们开了一些后门来 允许自己进入。但这些后门只有在经过了额外的口令确认之后才能够进入。 一种让 root 可访问的方法是增加适当的用户帐户到 wheel 组 (在 /etc/group 中)。wheel 组中的用户成员可以使用 su 命令来成为 root 。绝对不应该通过在口令项中进行设置来赋予维护人员天然的 wheel 组成员身份。维护人员应被放置在 staff 组中，然后通过 wheel 文件加入到 /etc/group 组。事实上，那些需要以 root 身份进行操作的用户应被放到 wheel 组中。当然，也可以通过 某种其它的验证手段，例如 Kerberos，可以通过 root 帐户中的 .k5login 文件来允许执行 ksu(1) 成为 root ，而不必把它们放进 wheel 组。 这可能是一种更好的解决方案，因为 wheel 机制仍然可能导致入侵者获得 root ，如果他拿到了口令文件，并能够进入职员的帐户。 尽管有 wheel 比什么都没有要强一些，但它并不是一种绝对安全的办法。

一种间接地提高员工帐号，以及 root 访问的方法，使采用其他的登录访问方式，并使用 ``星号'' 替代员工加密的口令。使用 vipw(8) 命令，可以把每一个加密的口令 替换成一个 ``*'' 符。 这将更新 /etc/master.passwd 文件，以及 用户名/口令数据库，以禁用口令登录。

如下面的员工帐号

foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh

应被改为：

foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh

这一更改将阻止一般的登录，因为加密的口令永远不会与 ``*'' 匹配。一旦这么做之后， 任何员工都必须使用其他的方式来完成登录，例如，使用 kerberos(1) 或者通过 ssh(1) 利用 公钥/密钥对 的方式 来完成登录。当使用 Kerberos 这样的工具时，通常必须加强运行 Kerberos 的服务器，以及桌面工作站的安全性。当使用 公钥/密钥对 以 ssh 登录时，通常必须加固用户 开始 登录的那台机器的安全 (通常这是他们的工作站)。在这之上还可以增加 一层安全性，即在使用 ssh-keygen(1) 生成它的时候，使用口令 来保护它们。如果能够用 ``星号'' 替换掉所有员工的口令， 那么，这也就保证了他们只能通过你设置的安全的方法来登录。这将迫使 所有的员工使用安全的、经过加密的连接来完成他们的会话，而这将使得 入侵者通过监听网络通讯，从某些不相关的、不太安全的机器上窃取口令 成为不可能。

另一钟间接的安全机制则是，从严格受限的机器向限制更宽松的机器 上登录。例如，如果你的服务器运行了所有的服务，那么，工作站应该什么都 不运行。为了让工作站尽可能地安全，应该避免运行任何没有必要的服务，甚 至不运行任何服务。另外，也应该考虑使用带口令保护功能的屏幕保护程序。 毋庸置疑，如果攻击者能够物理地接触你的工作站，那么他就有能力破坏任何 安全设施，这确实是我们需要考虑的一个问题，但同样地，真正能够物理接触 你的工作站或服务器并实施攻击的人在现实生活中并不常见，绝大多数攻击来 自于网络，而攻击者往往无法物理地接触服务器或工作站。

使用类似 Kerberos 这样的工具，也为我们提供了使用一个工具来禁 用某个用户，或修改他们口令并在所有机器上立即生效的方法。如果员工的帐 号被窃取，能够在所有的其他机器上生效的口令变更将很有意义。如果口令分 散地保存在多个机器上，一次修改 N 台机器上的口令很可能是一件痛苦的事 情。此外， Kerberos 还能够提供更多的限制，除了 Kerberos 令牌有很好的 过期机制之外，它还能够强制用户在某个特定的期限内修改口令(比如说，每 月一次).

10.3.2. 确保以root用户权限运行的服务器和suid/sgid可执行程序的安全

谨慎的管理员只运行它们需要的服务，不多，不少。要当心第三方 的服务程序很可能有更多的问题。例如，运行旧版的 imapd 或者 popper 无异于将 root 令牌拱手送给整个世界上的攻击者。 永远不要运行那些你没有仔细检查过的服务程序，许多服务程序并不需要以 root 身份运行。例如，ntalk， comsat，以及 finger 服务程序都能够以一种称作 沙盒 的特殊用户身份运行。除非你解决了大量的 麻烦，否则沙盒远不是一个完美的策略，但洋葱规则仍然成立，如果某个人 设法攻破了在沙盒中运行的程序，那么他们还必须冲出沙盒才能够做的更多。 攻击者需要冲破的层次越多，他成功的机会就越小。root漏洞曾经在几乎所有 的以root身份运行的程序中存在，包括基本的系统服 务。另外，如果你只通过 sshd 登录，而不打算使用 telnetd 或 rshd 或 rlogind，那么，毫不犹豫地关闭这些服务！

FreeBSD 现在默认在沙盒中运行 ntalkd, comsat, 以及 finger。此外， named(8) 也可以这样运行。 /etc/defaults/rc.conf 中包括了如何如此运行 named 的方法，只是这些内容被注释掉了。 如何升级或安装系统将决定这些沙盒所使用的特殊用户是否被自动安装。 谨慎的系统管理员将根据需要研究并实现沙盒。

此外，还有一些服务通常并不在沙盒中运行： sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, 以及一些其他的服务。当然，它们有一些替代品，但安装那些服务可能需要 做更多额外的工作。可能必须以 root 身份运行这些 程序，并通过其他机制来检测入侵。

系统中另一个比较大的 root 漏洞 是安装在其中的 suid-root 和 sgid 的可执行文件。绝大多数这类程序， 例如 rlogin, 被存放于 /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, 或 /usr/sbin 中。 尽管并没有 100% 的安全保证，但系统默认的 suid 和 sgid 可执行文件 通常是相对安全的。当然，偶尔也会发现一些存在于这些可执行文件中的 root 漏洞。1998年，Xlib 中发现了一处 root 漏洞，这使得 xterm (通常是做了suid的) 变得可以入侵。 安全通常比时候沮丧更好，因此，谨慎的管理员通常会限制 suid 可执行 文件，并保证只有员工帐号能够执行它们，或只开放给特定的用户组，甚 至彻底干掉 (chmod 000) 任何 suid 可执行文件， 以至于没有人能够执行它们。没有显示设备的服务器通常不会需要 xterm 可执行文件。sgid 可执行文件通常 同样地危险。一旦入侵者攻克了sgid-kmem，那么他就能够读取 /dev/kmem 并进而读取经过加密的口令文件，从而 窃取任何包含口令的帐号。另外，攻破了 kmem 的入 侵者能够监视通过 pty 传送的按键序列，即使用户使用的是安全的登录方 式。攻破了 tty 组的用户则能够向几乎所有用 户的 tty 写入数据。如果用户正在运行一个终端程序，或包含了键盘模拟 功能的终端仿真程序，那么，入侵者能够以那个用户的身份执行任何命令。

10.3.3. 确保用户帐户的安全

用户帐号的安全通常是最难保证的。虽然你可以为你的员工设置 严苛的登录限制，并用 ``星号'' 剃掉他们的口令，但你可 能无法对普通的用户这么做。如果有足够的决策权，那么在保证用户帐号 安全的斗争中或许会处于优势，但如果不是这样，你能做的只是警惕地监 控这些帐号的异动。让用户使用 ssh 或 Kerberos 可能会有更多的问题， 因为需要更多的管理和技术支持，尽管如此，与使用加密的口令文件相比， 这仍不失为一个好办法。

10.3.4. 确保口令文件的安全

尽可能使用 * 替换掉口令是保证口令文件安 全唯一的解决方法，如果能够用 ssh 或 Kerberos 的话。即使只有 root 用户能够读取加密过的口令文件 (/etc/spwd.db) 入侵者仍然可能设法读到它，即使他暂时还无法写入这个文件。

你的安全脚本应该经常检查并报告口令文件的异动 (参见后面的 检查文件完整性 一节)。

10.3.5. 确保内核中内核设备、直接访问设备和文件系统的安全

如果攻击者已经拿到了 root 那么他就有能力作任何 事情，当然，有一些事情是他们比较喜欢干的。例如，绝大多数现代的内核都包括 一个内建的听包设备。在 FreeBSD 中，这个设备被称作 bpf 。攻击者通常会尝试在攻克的系统上运行它。 如果你不需要 bpf 设备提供的功能，那么，就不要把它编 入内核

但即使已经关掉了 bpf 设备，你仍然需要担心 /dev/mem 和 /dev/kmem 。 就事论事地说，攻击者仍然能够通过直接访问的方式写入磁盘设备。同样地， 还有一个被称作模块加载器， kldload(8) 的机制，也会包含潜在的危险。 尝试入侵企业网络的入侵者会尝试在正在运行的内核上安装他自己的 bpf 设备，或其他听包设备。为了防止这些问题， 需要抬高内核安全级，至少调整到1。可以通过对 kern.securelevel 执行 sysctl 来完成这个任务。一旦把安全级调整到1， 对于直接访问设备的写入操作将被拒绝，而特殊的 chflags 标记，如 schg ，将被强制执行。一定要在重要的启动执 行文件、目录和脚本文件上设置 schg 标记 - 在 安全级生效之前的所有文件。这可能做得有些过火，并将导致在较高安全级上 运行时升级系统变得困难。此外，运行于较高安全级上，而没有正确设置 schg 标记的系统仍然是存在弱点的。另一种方法是把 / 和 /usr 以只读方式挂接。 此外，请注意过于严苛的安全设置将使得入侵检测同样无法进行。

10.3.6. 检查文件完整性: 可执行文件，配置文件和其他文件

当实施严格的限制时，往往会在使用的方便性上付出代价。例如，使用 chflags 来把 schg 标记 应用到 / 和 /usr 中的绝大多数文件上可能会起到反作用，因为 尽管它能够保护那些文件，但同样关掉了一个很好的监测机制。层次化安全 的最后一层可能是最重要的 - 检测。安全的其他部分可能相对来讲 意义并不那么大 (或者，更糟糕的事情是，那些措施会给你安全的假象)， 加入你无法检测潜在的入侵事件。层次化安全最重要的功能是减缓入侵者， 而不是彻底不让他们入侵，这能够让检测起到作用，并更好地捕捉入侵行为。

检测入侵的一种好办法是查找那些被修改、删除或添加的文件。检测 文件修改的最佳方法是与某个 (通常是中央的) 受限访问的系统上的文件进行 比对。在一台严格限制访问的系统上撰写你的安全脚本通常不能够被入侵者察 觉，因此，这非常重要。为了最大限度地发挥这一策略的优势，通常会使用只 读的NFS，或者设置 ssh 钥匙对以便为其他机器提供访问。除了网络交互之外， NFS可能是一种很难被察觉的方法 - 它允许你监控每一台客户机上的文件系统， 而这种监控几乎是无法察觉的。如果一台严格受限的服务器和客户机是通过交 换机连接的，那么 NFS 将是一种非常好的方式。不过，如果那台监控服务器 和客户机之间通过集线器(Hub)，或经过许多层的路由来连接，则这种方式就 很不安全了，此时，应考虑使用 ssh ，即使这可以在审计记录中查到。

Once you give a limited-access box, at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as find(1) and md5(1). It is best to physically md5 the client-box files at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found, relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr.

When using ssh rather than NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh client on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over insecure links, but it is also a lot harder to deal with.

A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth... files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check.

If you have a huge amount of user disk space, it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see mount(8)) are what you want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway, at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective.

Process accounting (see accton(8)) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs.

Finally, security scripts should process the log files, and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible - remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles.

10.3.7. Paranoia

A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features, as long as they do not effect convenience, and can add security features that do effect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit - if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective attacker who also has access to this document.

10.3.8. Denial of Service Attacks

This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers.

  1. Limiting server forks.

  2. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.).

  3. Kernel Route Cache.

A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory, until the machine dies. inetd (see inetd(8)) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down, it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the -c, -C, and -R options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the -C option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters.

Sendmail has its -OMaxDaemonChildren option, which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter, when you start sendmail, high enough to handle your expected load, but not so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode (-ODeliveryMode=queued) and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as -q1m, but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures.

Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the -s option whenever possible, and the -a option otherwise.

You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason.

It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., ``firewall everything except ports A, B, C, D, and M-Z''. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other Internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way - as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good chance that you will forget to ``close'' a couple of services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation, without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding, via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block off everything under 4000 in your firewall (except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of course).

Another common DoS attack is called a springboard attack - to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which overloads the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called ICMP_BANDLIM which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services.

Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less than rtminexpire. There are two problems:

  1. The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked.

  2. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack.

If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or better, it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via sysctl(8). Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine). Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack.

10.3.9. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH

There are a few issues with both Kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol, but there are bugs in the kerberized telnet and rlogin applications that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default Kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the -x option. ssh encrypts everything by default.

ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an insecure machine, your keys are usable. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login, and if an attacker has broken root on the insecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock.

We recommend that you use ssh in combination with Kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with Kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via Kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that Kerberos is unsuited to do). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only usable to entities logging in from specific machines.

10.4. DES, MD5, and Crypt

Parts rewritten and updated by Bill Swingle.

Every user on a UNIX system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with what is known as a ``one-way hash'', that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the ``plain-text'' password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords.

Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when UNIX came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This was not such a problem for users resident in the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with US law and retain compatibility with all the other UNIX variants that still used DES.

The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons.

10.4.1. Recognizing Your Crypt Mechanism

Before FreeBSD 4.4 libcrypt.a was a symbolic link pointing to the library which was used for encryption. FreeBSD 4.4 changed libcrypt.a to provide a configurable password authentication hash library. Currently the library supports DES, MD5 and Blowfish hash functions. By default FreeBSD uses MD5 to encrypt passwords.

It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. Passwords starting with $2$ are encrypted with the Blowfish hash function. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password.

The password format used for new passwords is controlled by the passwd_format login capability in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of des, md5 or blf. See the login.conf(5) manual page for more information about login capabilities.

10.5. One-time Passwords

S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc.

From version 5.0 of FreeBSD, S/Key has been replaced with the functionally equivalent OPIE (One-time Passwords In Everything). OPIE uses the MD5 hash by default.

There are three different sorts of passwords which we will discuss below. The first is your usual UNIX style or Kerberos password; we will call this a ``UNIX password''. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program or the OPIE opiekey(1) program and accepted by the keyinit or opiepasswd(1) programs and the login prompt; we will call this a ``one-time password''. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key/opiekey programs (and sometimes the keyinit/opiepasswd programs) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a ``secret password'' or just unqualified ``password''.

The secret password does not have anything to do with your UNIX password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key and OPIE secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like old UNIX passwords[8], they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key or OPIE system operates completely independently of the UNIX password system.

Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key and OPIE. One is what is known as the ``seed'' or ``key'', consisting of two letters and five digits. The other is what is called the ``iteration count'', a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4/MD5 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The authentication system (primarily PAM) keeps track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1, S/Key and OPIE must be reinitialized.

There are three programs involved in each system which we will discuss below. The key and opiekey programs accept an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generate a one-time password or a consecutive list of one-time passwords. The keyinit and opiepasswd programs are used to initialize S/Key and OPIE respectively, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; they take either a secret passphrase, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo and opieinfo programs examine the relevant credentials files (/etc/skeykeys or /etc/opiekeys) and print out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed.

There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using keyinit or opiepasswd over a secure connection to set up one-time-passwords for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using keyinit or opiepasswd over an insecure connection, in conjunction with key or opiekey over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using key/opiekey to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using key or opiekey to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere.

10.5.1. Secure Connection Initialization

To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself:

% keyinit
Adding unfurl:
Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected.
If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s.
Enter secret password:
Again secret password:

ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757
DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT

For OPIE, opiepasswd is used instead:

% opiepasswd -c
[grimreaper] ~ $ opiepasswd -f -c
Adding unfurl:
Only use this method from the console; NEVER from remote. If you are using
telnet, xterm, or a dial-in, type ^C now or exit with no password.
Then run opiepasswd without the -c parameter.
Using MD5 to compute responses.
Enter new secret pass phrase:
Again new secret pass phrase:
ID unfurl OTP key is 499 to4268
MOS MALL GOAT ARM AVID COED

At the Enter new secret pass phrase: or Enter secret password: prompts, you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate your one-time login keys. The ``ID'' line gives the parameters of your particular instance: your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use.

10.5.2. Insecure Connection Initialization

To initialize or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run key or opiekey; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command:

% keyinit -s
Updating unfurl:
Old key: to17758
Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command.
Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100
Enter new key [default to17759]:
s/key 100 to 17759
s/key access password:
s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE

For OPIE, you need to use opiepasswd:

% opiepasswd

Updating unfurl:
You need the response from an OTP generator.
Old secret pass phrase:
        otp-md5 498 to4268 ext
        Response: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT
New secret pass phrase:
        otp-md5 499 to4269
        Response: LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY

ID mark OTP key is 499 gr4269
LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY

To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press Return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters:

% key 100 to17759
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE

Or for OPIE:

% opiekey 498 to4268
Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
Enter secret pass phrase:
GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT

Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated over to the relevant program.

10.5.3. Generating a Single One-time Password

Once you have initialized S/Key or OPIE, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this:

% telnet example.com
Trying 10.0.0.1...
Connected to example.com
Escape character is '^]'.

FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)

login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password:

Or for OPIE:

% telnet example.com
Trying 10.0.0.1...
Connected to example.com
Escape character is '^]'.

FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)

login: <username>
otp-md5 498 gr4269 ext
Password:

As a side note, the S/Key and OPIE prompts have a useful feature (not shown here): if you press Return at the password prompt, the prompter will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in a password by hand, such as from a printout.

At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run key or opiekey on. (There are versions of these for DOS, Windows and Mac OS as well.) They need both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to.

On the trusted system:

% key 97 fw13894
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password:
WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG

For OPIE:

% opiekey 498 to4268
Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
Enter secret pass phrase:
GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT

Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in:

login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password: <return to enable echo>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG
Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ...

10.5.4. Generating Multiple One-time Passwords

Sometimes you have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key and opiekey commands to generate a number of one-time passwords beforehand to be printed out and taken with you. For example:

% key -n 5 30 zz99999
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT
27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT
28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT
29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG
30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK

Or for OPIE:

% opiekey -n 5 30 zz99999
Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
Enter secret pass phrase: <secret password>
26: JOAN BORE FOSS DES NAY QUIT
27: LATE BIAS SLAY FOLK MUCH TRIG
28: SALT TIN ANTI LOON NEAL USE
29: RIO ODIN GO BYE FURY TIC
30: GREW JIVE SAN GIRD BOIL PHI

The -n 5 requests five keys in sequence, the 30 specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them.

10.5.5. Restricting Use of UNIX® Passwords

S/Key can place restrictions on the use of UNIX passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The skey.access(5) manual page has more information on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security.

If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the default on FreeBSD 4.X systems), then all users will be allowed to use UNIX passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, UNIX passwords are permitted on the console.

Here is a sample skey.access configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements:

permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0
permit user fnord
permit port ttyd0

The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use UNIX passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication.

The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use UNIX passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable.

The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use UNIX passwords; this would be used for dial-ups.

OPIE can restrict the use of UNIX passwords based on the IP address of a login session just like S/Key does. The relevant file is /etc/opieaccess, which is present by default on FreeBSD 5.0 and newer systems. Please check opieaccess(5) for more information on this file and which security considerations you should be aware of when using it.

Here is a sample opieaccess file:

permit 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0

This line allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use UNIX passwords at any time.

If no rules in opieaccess are matched, the default is to deny non-OPIE logins.

10.6. KerberosIV

Contributed by Mark Murray. Based on a contribution by Mark Dapoz.

Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable.

The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description.

10.6.1. Installing KerberosIV

Kerberos is an optional component of FreeBSD. The easiest way to install this software is by selecting the krb4 or krb5 distribution in sysinstall during the initial installation of FreeBSD. This will install the ``eBones'' (KerberosIV) or ``Heimdal'' (Kerberos5) implementation of Kerberos. These implementations are included because they are developed outside the USA/Canada and were thus available to system owners outside those countries during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA.

Alternatively, the MIT implementation of Kerberos is available from the ports collection as security/krb5.

10.6.2. Creating the Initial Database

This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present:

# cd /etc/kerberosIV
# ls
README      krb.conf        krb.realms

If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, or if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files.

You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be EXAMPLE.COM and the server is grunt.example.com. We edit or create the krb.conf file:

# cat krb.conf
EXAMPLE.COM
EXAMPLE.COM grunt.example.com admin server
CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu
LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu
TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu
ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov

In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity.

The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a ``key distribution center''. The words admin server following a host's name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos manual pages.

Now we have to add grunt.example.com to the EXAMPLE.COM realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .example.com domain in the EXAMPLE.COM realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows:

# cat krb.realms
grunt.example.com EXAMPLE.COM
.example.com EXAMPLE.COM
.berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU
.MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU
.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU

Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things.

The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm.

Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the kdb_init command to do this:

# kdb_init
Realm name [default  ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: EXAMPLE.COM
You will be prompted for the database Master Password.
It is important that you NOT FORGET this password.

Enter Kerberos master key:

Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this:

# kstash

Enter Kerberos master key:

Current Kerberos master key version is 1.

Master key entered. BEWARE!

This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key.

10.6.3. Making It All Run

Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd. These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system.

These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like rcp(1), rlogin(1) and rsh(1).

Now let us add these entries:

# kdb_edit
Opening database...

Enter Kerberos master key:

Current Kerberos master key version is 1.

Master key entered.  BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.

Principal name: passwd
Instance: grunt

<Not found>, Create [y] ? y

Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password:                    <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password

New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here

Random password [y] ? y

Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?
Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?
Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: rcmd
Instance: grunt

<Not found>, Create [y] ?

Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password:       <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password

New Password:           <---- enter RANDOM here

Random password [y] ?

Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?
Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?
Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name:         <---- null entry here will cause an exit

10.6.4. Creating the Server File

We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos.

# ext_srvtab grunt
Enter Kerberos master key:

Current Kerberos master key version is 1.

Master key entered. BEWARE!
Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'....

Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the servers can pick it up. Use the mv(1) command to move it into place on the original system:

# mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab

If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600:

# mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab
# chmod 600 srvtab

10.6.5. Populating the Database

We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let us create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this:

# kdb_edit
Opening database...

Enter Kerberos master key:

Current Kerberos master key version is 1.

Master key entered.  BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.

Principal name: jane
Instance:

<Not found>, Create [y] ? y

Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password:                <---- enter a secure password here
Verifying password

New Password:                <---- re-enter the password here
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?
Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?
Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name:          <---- null entry here will cause an exit

10.6.6. Testing It All Out

First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. Note that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automatically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory.

# kerberos &
Kerberos server starting
Sleep forever on error
Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.

Master key entered. BEWARE!

Current Kerberos master key version is 1
Local realm: EXAMPLE.COM
# kadmind -n &
KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing
Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a
regular kill instead

Current Kerberos master key version is 1.

Master key entered.  BEWARE!

Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the ID jane that we created above:

% kinit jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane"
Password:

Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them:

% klist
Ticket file:    /tmp/tkt245
Principal:      jane@EXAMPLE.COM

  Issued           Expires          Principal
Apr 30 11:23:22  Apr 30 19:23:22  krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM

Now try changing the password using passwd(1) to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database:

% passwd
realm EXAMPLE.COM
Old password for jane:
New Password for jane:
Verifying password
New Password for jane:
Password changed.

10.6.7. Adding su Privileges

Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate su(1) password. We could now add an ID which is authorized to su(1) to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database:

# kdb_edit
Opening database...

Enter Kerberos master key:

Current Kerberos master key version is 1.

Master key entered.  BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.

Principal name: jane
Instance: root

<Not found>, Create [y] ? y

Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password:                    <---- enter a SECURE password here
Verifying password

New Password:            <---- re-enter the password here

Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?
Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short!
Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name:                <---- null entry here will cause an exit

Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works:

# kinit jane.root
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root"
Password:

Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file:

# cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM

Now try doing the su(1):

% su
Password:

and take a look at what tokens we have:

# klist
Ticket file:    /tmp/tkt_root_245
Principal:      jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM

  Issued           Expires          Principal
May  2 20:43:12  May  3 04:43:12  krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM

10.6.8. Using Other Commands

In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to su(1) to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory:

# cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM

Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form:

% cat ~/.klogin
jane@EXAMPLE.COM
jack@EXAMPLE.COM

This allows anyone in the EXAMPLE.COM realm who has authenticated themselves as jane or jack (via kinit, see above) to access to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via rlogin(1), rsh(1) or rcp(1).

For example, jane now logs into another system using Kerberos:

% kinit
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Password:
% rlogin grunt
Last login: Mon May  1 21:14:47 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
        The Regents of the University of California.   All rights reserved.

FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995

Or jack logs into jane's account on the same machine (jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance):

% kinit
% rlogin grunt -l jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Password:
Last login: Mon May  1 21:16:55 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
        The Regents of the University of California.   All rights reserved.
FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995

10.7. Kerberos5

Contributed by Tillman Hodgson. Based on a contribution by Mark Murray.

Every FreeBSD release beyond FreeBSD-5.1 includes support only for Kerberos5. Hence Kerberos5 is the only version included, and its configuration is similar in many aspects to that of KerberosIV. The following information only applies to Kerberos5 in post FreeBSD-5.0 releases. Users who wish to use the KerberosIV package may install the security/krb4 port.

Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable.

Kerberos can be described as an identity-verifying proxy system. It can also be described as a trusted third-party authentication system. Kerberos provides only one function -- the secure authentication of users on the network. It does not provide authorization functions (what users are allowed to do) or auditing functions (what those users did). After a client and server have used Kerberos to prove their identity, they can also encrypt all of their communications to assure privacy and data integrity as they go about their business.

Therefore it is highly recommended that Kerberos be used with other security methods which provide authorization and audit services.

The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description.

For purposes of demonstrating a Kerberos installation, the various namespaces will be handled as follows:

  • The DNS domain (``zone'') will be example.org.

  • The Kerberos realm will be EXAMPLE.ORG.

Note: Please use real domain names when setting up Kerberos even if you intend to run it internally. This avoids DNS problems and assures inter-operation with other Kerberos realms.

10.7.1. History

Kerberos was created by MIT as a solution to network security problems. The Kerberos protocol uses strong cryptography so that a client can prove its identity to a server (and vice versa) across an insecure network connection.

Kerberos is both the name of a network authentication protocol and an adjective to describe programs that implement the program (Kerberos telnet, for example). The current version of the protocol is version 5, described in RFC 1510.

Several free implementations of this protocol are available, covering a wide range of operating systems. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where Kerberos was originally developed, continues to develop their Kerberos package. It is commonly used in the US as a cryptography product, as such it has historically been affected by US export regulations. The MIT Kerberos is available as a port (security/krb5). Heimdal Kerberos is another version 5 implementation, and was explicitly developed outside of the US to avoid export regulations (and is thus often included in non-commercial UNIX variants). The Heimdal Kerberos distribution is available as a port (security/heimdal), and a minimal installation of it is included in the base FreeBSD install.

In order to reach the widest audience, these instructions assume the use of the Heimdal distribution included in FreeBSD.

10.7.2. Setting up a Heimdal KDC

The Key Distribution Center (KDC) is the centralized authentication service that Kerberos provides -- it is the computer that issues Kerberos tickets. The KDC is considered ``trusted'' by all other computers in the Kerberos realm, and thus has heightened security concerns.

Note that while running the Kerberos server requires very few computing resources, a dedicated machine acting only as a KDC is recommended for security reasons.

To begin setting up a KDC, ensure that your /etc/rc.conf file contains the correct settings to act as a KDC (you may need to adjust paths to reflect your own system):

kerberos5_server_enable="YES"
kadmind5_server_enable="YES"
kerberos_stash="YES"

Note: The kerberos_stash is only available in FreeBSD 4.X.

Next we will set up your Kerberos config file, /etc/krb5.conf:

[libdefaults]
    default_realm = EXAMPLE.ORG
[realms]
    EXAMPLE.ORG = {
        kdc = kerberos.example.org
    }
[domain_realm]
    .example.org = EXAMPLE.ORG

Note that this /etc/krb5.conf file implies that your KDC will have the fully-qualified hostname of kerberos.example.org. You will need to add a CNAME (alias) entry to your zone file to accomplish this if your KDC has a different hostname.

Note: For large networks with a properly configured BIND DNS server, the above example could be trimmed to:

[libdefaults]
      default_realm = EXAMPLE.ORG

With the following lines being appended to the example.org zonefile:

_kerberos._udp      IN  SRV     01 00 88 kerberos.example.org.
_kerberos._tcp      IN  SRV     01 00 88 kerberos.example.org.
_kpasswd._udp       IN  SRV     01 00 464 kerberos.example.org.
_kerberos-adm._tcp  IN  SRV     01 00 749 kerberos.example.org.
_kerberos           IN  TXT     EXAMPLE.ORG.

Next we will create the Kerberos database. This database contains the keys of all principals encrypted with a master password. You are not required to remember this password, it will be stored in a file (/var/heimdal/m-key). To create the master key, run kstash and enter a password.

Once the master key has been created, you can initialize the database using the kadmin program with the -l option (standing for ``local''). This option instructs kadmin to modify the database files directly rather than going through the kadmind network service. This handles the chicken-and-egg problem of trying to connect to the database before it is created. Once you have the kadmin prompt, use the init command to create your realms initial database.

Lastly, while still in kadmin, create your first principal using the add command. Stick to the defaults options for the principal for now, you can always change them later with the modify command. Note that you can use the ? command at any prompt to see the available options.

A sample database creation session is shown below:

# kstash
Master key: xxxxxxxx
Verifying password - Master key: xxxxxxxx

# kadmin -l
kadmin> init EXAMPLE.ORG
Realm max ticket life [unlimited]:
kadmin> add tillman
Max ticket life [unlimited]:
Max renewable life [unlimited]:
Attributes []:
Password: xxxxxxxx
Verifying password - Password: xxxxxxxx

Now it is time to start up the KDC services. Run /etc/rc.d/kerberos start and /etc/rc.d/kadmind start to bring up the services. Note that you won't have any kerberized daemons running at this point but you should be able to confirm the that the KDC is functioning by obtaining and listing a ticket for the principal (user) that you just created from the command-line of the KDC itself:

% k5init tillman
tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG's Password:

% k5list
Credentials cache: FILE:/tmp/krb5cc_500
    Principal: tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG

  Issued           Expires          Principal
Aug 27 15:37:58  Aug 28 01:37:58  krbtgt/EXAMPLE.ORG@EXAMPLE.ORG

10.7.3. Kerberos enabling a server with Heimdal services

First, we need a copy of the Kerberos configuration file, /etc/krb5.conf. To do so, simply copy it over to the client computer from the KDC in a secure fashion (using network utilities, such as scp(1), or physically via a floppy disk).

Next you need a /etc/krb5.keytab file. This is the major difference between a server providing Kerberos enabled daemons and a workstation -- the server must have a keytab file. This file contains the servers host key, which allows it and the KDC to verify each others identity. It must be transmitted to the server in a secure fashion, as the security of the server can be broken if the key is made public. This explicitly means that transferring it via a clear text channel, such as FTP, is a very bad idea.

Typically, you transfer to the keytab to the server using the kadmin program. This is handy because you also need to create the host principal (the KDC end of the krb5.keytab) using kadmin.

Note that you must have already obtained a ticket and that this ticket must be allowed to use the kadmin interface in the kadmind.acl. See the section titled ``Remote administration'' in the Heimdal info pages (info heimdal) for details on designing access control lists. If you do not want to enable remote kadmin access, you can simply securely connect to the KDC (via local console, ssh(1) or Kerberos telnet(1)) and perform administration locally using kadmin -l.

After installing the /etc/krb5.conf file, you can use kadmin from the Kerberos server. The add --random-key command will let you add the servers host principal, and the ext command will allow you to extract the servers host principal to its own keytab. For example:

# kadmin
kadmin> add --random-key host/myserver.example.org
Max ticket life [unlimited]:
Max renewable life [unlimited]:
Attributes []:
kadmin> ext host/myserver.example.org
kadmin> exit

Note that the ext command (short for ``extract'') stores the extracted key in /etc/krb5.keytab by default.

If you do not have kadmind running on the KDC (possibly for security reasons) and thus do not have access to kadmin remotely, you can add the host principal (host/myserver.EXAMPLE.ORG) directly on the KDC and then extract it to a temporary file (to avoid over-writing the /etc/krb5.keytab on the KDC) using something like this:

# kadmin
kadmin> ext --keytab=/tmp/example.keytab host/myserver.example.org
kadmin> exit

You can then securely copy the keytab to the server computer (using scp or a floppy, for example). Be sure to specify a non-default keytab name to avoid over-writing the keytab on the KDC.

At this point your server can communicate with the KDC (due to its krb5.conf file) and it can prove its own identity (due to the krb5.keytab file). It is now ready for you to enable some Kerberos services. For this example we will enable the telnet service by putting a line like this into your /etc/inetd.conf and then restarting the inetd(8) service with /etc/rc.d/inetd restart:

telnet    stream  tcp     nowait  root    /usr/libexec/telnetd  telnetd -a user

The critical bit is that the -a (for authentication) type is set to user. Consult the telnetd(8) manual page for more details.

10.7.4. Kerberos enabling a client with Heimdal

Setting up a client computer is almost trivially easy. As far as Kerberos configuration goes, you only need the Kerberos configuration file, located at /etc/krb5.conf. Simply securely copy it over to the client computer from the KDC.

Test your client computer by attempting to use kinit, klist, and kdestroy from the client to obtain, show, and then delete a ticket for the principal you created above. You should also be able to use Kerberos applications to connect to Kerberos enabled servers, though if that does not work and obtaining a ticket does the problem is likely with the server and not with the client or the KDC.

When testing an application like telnet, try using a packet sniffer (such as tcpdump(1)) to confirm that your password is not sent in the clear. Try using telnet with the -x option, which encrypts the entire data stream (similar to ssh).

The core Kerberos client applications (traditionally named kinit, klist, kdestroy, and kpasswd) are installed in the base FreeBSD install. Note that FreeBSD versions prior to 5.0 renamed them to k5init, k5list, k5destroy, k5passwd, and k5stash (though it is typically only used once).

Various non-core Kerberos client applications are also installed by default. This is where the ``minimal'' nature of the base Heimdal installation is felt: telnet is the only Kerberos enabled service.

The Heimdal port adds some of the missing client applications: Kerberos enabled versions of ftp, rsh, rcp, rlogin, and a few other less common programs. The MIT port also contains a full suite of Kerberos client applications.

10.7.5. User configuration files: .k5login and .k5users

Users within a realm typically have their Kerberos principal (such as tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG) mapped to a local user account (such as a local account named tillman). Client applications such as telnet usually do not require a user name or a principal.

Occasionally, however, you want to grant access to a local user account to someone who does not have a matching Kerberos principal. For example, tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG may need access to the local user account webdevelopers. Other principals may also need access to that local account.

The .k5login and .k5users files, placed in a users home directory, can be used similar to a powerful combination of .hosts and .rhosts, solving this problem. For example, if a .k5login with the following contents:

tillman@example.org
jdoe@example.org

Were to be placed into the home directory of the local user webdevelopers then both principals listed would have access to that account without requiring a shared password.

Reading the man pages for these commands is recommended. Note that the ksu man page covers .k5users.

10.7.6. Kerberos Tips, Tricks, and Troubleshooting

  • When using either the Heimdal or MIT Kerberos ports ensure that your PATH environment variable lists the Kerberos versions of the client applications before the system versions.

  • Is your time in sync? Are you sure? If the time is not in sync (typically within five minutes) authentication will fail.

  • MIT and Heimdal inter-operate nicely. Except for kadmin, the protocol for which is not standardized.

  • If you change your hostname, you also need to change your host/ principal and update your keytab. This also applies to special keytab entries like the www/ principal used for Apache's www/mod_auth_kerb.

  • All hosts in your realm must be resolvable (both forwards and reverse) in DNS (or /etc/hosts as a minimum). CNAMEs will work, but the A and PTR records must be correct and in place. The error message isn't very intuitive: ``Kerberos5 refuses authentication because Read req failed: Key table entry not found''.

  • Some operating systems that may being acting as clients to your KDC do not set the permissions for ksu to be setuid root. This means that ksu does not work, which is a good security idea but annoying. This is not a KDC error.

  • With MIT Kerberos, if you want to allow a principal to have a ticket life longer than the default ten hours, you must use modify_principal in kadmin to change the maxlife of both the principal in question and the krbtgt principal. Then the principal can use the -l option with kinit to request a ticket with a longer lifetime.

  • Note: If you run a packet sniffer on your KDC to add in troubleshooting and then run kinit from a workstation, you will notice that your TGT is sent immediately upon running kinit -- even before you type your password! The explanation is that the Kerberos server freely transmits a TGT (Ticket Granting Ticket) to any unauthorized request; however, every TGT is encrypted in a key derived from the user's password. Therefore, when a user types their password it is not being sent to the KDC, it is being used to decrypt the TGT that kinit already obtained. If the decryption process results in a valid ticket with a valid time stamp, the user has valid Kerberos credentials. These credentials include a session key for establishing secure communications with the Kerberos server in the future, as well as the actual ticket-granting ticket, which is actually encrypted with the Kerberos server's own key. This second layer of encryption is unknown to the user, but it is what allows the Kerberos server to verify the authenticity of each TGT.

  • You have to keep the time in sync between all the computers in your realm. NTP is perfect for this. For more information on NTP, see Section 19.12.

  • If you want to use long ticket lifetimes (a week, for example) and you are using OpenSSH to connect to the machine where your ticket is stored, make sure that Kerberos TicketCleanup is set to no in your sshd_config or else your tickets will be deleted when you log out.

  • Remember that host principals can have a longer ticket lifetime as well. If your user principal has a lifetime of a week but the host you are connecting to has a lifetime of nine hours, you will have an expired host principal in your cache and the ticket cache will not work as expected.

  • When setting up a krb5.dict file to prevent specific bad passwords from being used (the manual page for kadmind covers this briefly), remember that it only applies to principals that have a password policy assigned to them. The krb5.dict files format is simple: one string per line. Creating a symbolic link to /usr/share/dict/words might be useful.

10.7.7. Differences with the MIT port

The major difference between the MIT and Heimdal installs relates to the kadmin program which has a different (but equivalent) set of commands and uses a different protocol. This has a large implications if your KDC is MIT as you will not be able to use the Heimdal kadmin program to administer your KDC remotely (or vice versa, for that matter).

The client applications may also take slightly different command line options to accomplish the same tasks. Following the instructions on the MIT Kerberos web site (http://web.mit.edu/Kerberos/www/) is recommended. Be careful of path issues: the MIT port installs into /usr/local/ by default, and the ``normal'' system applications may be run instead of MIT if your PATH environment variable lists the system directories first.

Note: With the MIT security/krb5 port that is provided by FreeBSD, be sure to read the /usr/local/share/doc/krb5/README.FreeBSD file installed by the port if you want to understand why logins via telnetd and klogind behave somewhat oddly. Most importantly, correcting the ``incorrect permissions on cache file'' behavior requires that the login.krb5 binary be used for authentication so that it can properly change ownership for the forwarded credentials.

10.7.8. Mitigating limitations found in Kerberos

10.7.8.1. Kerberos is an all-or-nothing approach

Every service enabled on the network must be modified to work with Kerberos (or be otherwise secured against network attacks) or else the users credentials could be stolen and re-used. An example of this would be Kerberos enabling all remote shells (via rsh and telnet, for example) but not converting the POP3 mail server which sends passwords in plaintext.

10.7.8.2. Kerberos is intended for single-user workstations

In a multi-user environment, Kerberos is less secure. This is because it stores the tickets in the /tmp directory, which is readable by all users. If a user is sharing a computer with several other people simultaneously (i.e. multi-user), it is possible that the user's tickets can be stolen (copied) by another user.

This can be overcome with the -c filename command-line option or (preferably) the KRB5CCNAME environment variable, but this is rarely done. In principal, storing the ticket in the users home directory and using simple file permissions can mitigate this problem.

10.7.8.3. The KDC is a single point of failure

By design, the KDC must be as secure as the master password database is contained on it. The KDC should have absolutely no other services running on it and should be physically secured. The danger is high because Kerberos stores all passwords encrypted with the same key (the ``master'' key), which in turn is stored as a file on the KDC.

As a side note, a compromised master key is not quite as bad as one might normally fear. The master key is only used to encrypt the Kerberos database and as a seed for the random number generator. As long as access to your KDC is secure, an attacker cannot do much with the master key.

Additionally, if the KDC is unavailable (perhaps due to a denial of service attack or network problems) the network services are unusable as authentication can not be performed, a recipe for a denial-of-service attack. This can alleviated with multiple KDCs (a single master and one or more slaves) and with careful implementation of secondary or fall-back authentication (PAM is excellent for this).

10.7.8.4. Kerberos Shortcomings

Kerberos allows users, hosts and services to authenticate between themselves. It does not have a mechanism to authenticate the KDC to the users, hosts or services. This means that a trojanned kinit (for example) could record all user names and passwords. Something like security/tripwire or other file system integrity checking tools can alleviate this.

10.7.9. Resources and further information

10.8. Firewalls

Contributed by Gary Palmer and Alex Nash.

Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them.

Note: People often think that having a firewall between your internal network and the ``Big Bad Internet'' will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly set up firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier.

10.8.1. What Is a Firewall?

There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router. This type of firewall utilizes a multi-homed machine and a set of rules to determine whether to forward or block individual packets. A multi-homed machine is simply a device with multiple network interfaces. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled.

Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms.

FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this section.

10.8.1.1. Packet Filtering Routers

A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router is programmed to compare each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software includes packet filtering functionality that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules.

To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the firewall looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of the packet's headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a ``rule chain''.

The packet-matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc).

10.8.1.2. Proxy Servers

Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers, as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out).

Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including ``one-shot'' password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password expires immediately after the first use. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system.

Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers. Most will also allow the administrator to specify which users can talk to which destination machines. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose.

10.8.2. What Does IPFW Allow Me to Do?

IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, ipfw(8). Together, they allow you to define and query the rules used by the kernel in its routing decisions.

There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section performs packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which tracks usage of the router, based on rules similar to those used in the firewall section. This allows the administrator to monitor how much traffic the router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW traffic it is forwarding, for example.

As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation.

10.8.3. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD

As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See "Reconfiguring your Kernel" (Chapter 9) for more details on how to recompile your kernel.

WarningIPFW defaults to a policy of deny ip from any to any. If you do not add other rules during startup to allow access, you will lock yourself out of the server upon rebooting into a firewall-enabled kernel. We suggest that you set firewall_type=open in your /etc/rc.conf file when first enabling this feature, then refining the firewall rules in /etc/rc.firewall after you have tested that the new kernel feature works properly. To be on the safe side, you may wish to consider performing the initial firewall configuration from the local console rather than via ssh. Another option is to build a kernel using both the IPFIREWALL and IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT options. This will change the default rule of IPFW to allow ip from any to any and avoid the possibility of a lockout.

There are currently four kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW:

options IPFIREWALL

Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering.

options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE

Enables code to allow logging of packets through syslogd(8). Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen.

options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10

Limits the number of packets logged through syslogd(8) on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding.

When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the ipfw(8) utility:

# ipfw zero 4500

Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging.

options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT

This changes the default rule action from ``deny'' to ``allow''. This avoids the possibility of locking yourself out if you happen to boot a kernel with IPFIREWALL support but have not configured your firewall yet. It is also very useful if you often use ipfw(8) as a filter for specific problems as they arise. Use with care though, as this opens up the firewall and changes the way it works.

Note: Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities.

10.8.4. Configuring IPFW

The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the ipfw(8) utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure.

There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries.

10.8.4.1. Altering the IPFW Rules

The syntax for this form of the command is:

ipfw [-N] command [index] action [log] protocol addresses [options]



There is one valid flag when using this form of the command:

-N

Resolve addresses and service names in output.

The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are:

add

Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list

delete

Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list

Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry.

If an index value is supplied, it is used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny).

The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE.

Valid actions are:

reject

Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source.

allow

Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass, permit, and accept)

deny

Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination).

count

Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry.

Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix.

The protocols which can be specified are:

all

Matches any IP packet

icmp

Matches ICMP packets

tcp

Matches TCP packets

udp

Matches UDP packets

The address specification is:

from address/mask [port] to address/mask [port] [via interface]

You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP).

The via is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces.

The syntax used to specify an address/mask is:

address
or 
address/mask-bits
or 
address:mask-pattern


A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. mask-bits is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. mask-pattern is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to specify ``any IP address''.

The port numbers to be blocked are specified as:

port [,port [,port [...]]]

to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or

port-port

to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first.

The options available are:

frag

Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram.

in

Matches if the packet is on the way in.

out

Matches if the packet is on the way out.

ipoptions spec

Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (time stamp). The absence of a particular option may be specified with a leading !.

established

Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain.

setup

Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit is set but the ACK bit is not).

tcpflags flags

Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !.

icmptypes types

Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with traceroute(8)).

10.8.4.2. Listing the IPFW Rules

The syntax for this form of the command is:

ipfw [-a] [-c] [-d] [-e] [-t] [-N] [-S] list



There are seven valid flags when using this form of the command:

-a

While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters.

-c

List rules in compact form.

-d

Show dynamic rules in addition to static rules.

-e

If -d was specified, also show expired dynamic rules.

-t

Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the ipfw(8) utility.

-N

Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names.

-S

Show the set each rule belongs to. If this flag is not specified, disabled rules will not be listed.

10.8.4.3. Flushing the IPFW Rules

The syntax for flushing the chain is:

ipfw flush



This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules; the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain.

10.8.4.4. Clearing the IPFW Packet Counters

The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is:

ipfw zero [index]



When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry.

10.8.5. Example Commands for ipfw

This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org:

# ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23

The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port).

# ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org

If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering:

# ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup

To see the accounting records:

# ipfw -a list
or in the short form 
# ipfw -a l


You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with:

# ipfw -at l

10.8.6. Building a Packet Filtering Firewall

Note: The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements.

When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter.

Note: If you use the logging versions of the accept command, be aware that it can generate large amounts of log data. One log entry will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd will also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on.

You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated manual page explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured.

The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are:

  • Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet.

  • Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is, is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you will have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123.

  • Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063.

  • Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above.

Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at http://www.cert.org/tech_tips/packet_filtering.html

As stated above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above.

10.8.7. IPFW Overhead and Optimization

Many people want to know how much overhead IPFW adds to a system. The answer to this depends mostly on your rule set and processor speed. For most applications dealing with Ethernet and small rule sets, the answer is ``negligible''. For those of you that need actual measurements to satisfy your curiosity, read on.

The following measurements were made using 2.2.5-STABLE on a 486-66. (While IPFW has changed slightly in later releases of FreeBSD, it still performs with similar speed.) IPFW was modified to measure the time spent within the ip_fw_chk routine, displaying the results to the console every 1000 packets.

Two rule sets, each with 1000 rules, were tested. The first set was designed to demonstrate a worst case scenario by repeating the rule:

# ipfw add deny tcp from any to any 55555

This demonstrates a worst case scenario by causing most of IPFW's packet check routine to be executed before finally deciding that the packet does not match the rule (by virtue of the port number). Following the 999th iteration of this rule was an allow ip from any to any.

The second set of rules were designed to abort the rule check quickly:

# ipfw add deny ip from 1.2.3.4 to 1.2.3.4

The non-matching source IP address for the above rule causes these rules to be skipped very quickly. As before, the 1000th rule was an allow ip from any to any.

The per-packet processing overhead in the former case was approximately 2.703 ms/packet, or roughly 2.7 microseconds per rule. Thus the theoretical packet processing limit with these rules is around 370 packets per second. Assuming 10 Mbps Ethernet and a ~1500 byte packet size, we would only be able to achieve 55.5% bandwidth utilization.

For the latter case each packet was processed in approximately 1.172 ms, or roughly 1.2 microseconds per rule. The theoretical packet processing limit here would be about 853 packets per second, which could consume 10 Mbps Ethernet bandwidth.

The excessive number of rules tested and the nature of those rules do not provide a real-world scenario -- they were used only to generate the timing information presented here. Here are a few things to keep in mind when building an efficient rule set:

  • Place an established rule early on to handle the majority of TCP traffic. Do not put any allow tcp statements before this rule.

  • Place heavily triggered rules earlier in the rule set than those rarely used (without changing the permissiveness of the firewall, of course). You can see which rules are used most often by examining the packet counting statistics with ipfw -a l.

10.9. OpenSSL

As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols.

However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA) included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use. IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and rebuild your sources using make world.

Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other countries. In the past it was protected by a patent.

10.9.1. Source Code Installations

OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-secure CVSup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code.

10.10. VPN over IPsec

Written by Nik Clayton.

Creating a VPN between two networks, separated by the Internet, using FreeBSD gateways.

10.10.1. Understanding IPsec

Written by Hiten M. Pandya.

This section will guide you through the process of setting up IPsec, and to use it in an environment which consists of FreeBSD and Microsoft Windows 2000/XP machines, to make them communicate securely. In order to set up IPsec, it is necessary that you are familiar with the concepts of building a custom kernel (see Chapter 9).

IPsec is a protocol which sits on top of the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. It allows two or more hosts to communicate in a secure manner (hence the name). The FreeBSD IPsec ``network stack'' is based on the KAME implementation, which has support for both protocol families, IPv4 and IPv6.

Note: FreeBSD 5.X contains a ``hardware accelerated'' IPsec stack, known as ``Fast IPsec'', that was obtained from OpenBSD. It employs cryptographic hardware (whenever possible) via the crypto(4) subsystem to optimize the performance of IPsec. This subsystem is new, and does not support all the features that are available in the KAME version of IPsec. However, in order to enable hardware-accelerated IPsec, the following kernel option has to be added to your kernel configuration file:

options      FAST_IPSEC  # new IPsec (cannot define w/ IPSEC)

Note, that it is not currently possible to use the ``Fast IPsec'' subsystem in lue with the KAME implementation of IPsec. Consult the fast_ipsec(4) manual page for more information.

IPsec consists of two sub-protocols:

  • Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP), protects the IP packet data from third party interference, by encrypting the contents using symmetric cryptography algorithms (like Blowfish, 3DES).

  • Authentication Header (AH), protects the IP packet header from third party interference and spoofing, by computing a cryptographic checksum and hashing the IP packet header fields with a secure hashing function. This is then followed by an additional header that contains the hash, to allow the information in the packet to be authenticated.

ESP and AH can either be used together or separately, depending on the environment.

IPsec can either be used to directly encrypt the traffic between two hosts (known as Transport Mode); or to build ``virtual tunnels'' between two subnets, which could be used for secure communication between two corporate networks (known as Tunnel Mode). The latter is more commonly known as a Virtual Private Network (VPN). The ipsec(4) manual page should be consulted for detailed information on the IPsec subsystem in FreeBSD.

To add IPsec support to your kernel, add the following options to your kernel configuration file:

options   IPSEC        #IP security
options   IPSEC_ESP    #IP security (crypto; define w/ IPSEC)

If IPsec debugging support is desired, the following kernel option should also be added:

options   IPSEC_DEBUG  #debug for IP security

10.10.2. The Problem

There's no standard for what constitutes a VPN. VPNs can be implemented using a number of different technologies, each of which have their own strengths and weaknesses. This article presents a number of scenarios, and strategies for implementing a VPN for each scenario.

10.10.3. Scenario #1: Two networks, connected to the Internet, to behave as one

This is the scenario that caused me to first investigating VPNs. The premise is as follows:

  • You have at least two sites

  • Both sites are using IP internally

  • Both sites are connected to the Internet, through a gateway that is running FreeBSD.

  • The gateway on each network has at least one public IP address.

  • The internal addresses of the two networks can be public or private IP addresses, it doesn't matter. You can be running NAT on the gateway machine if necessary.

  • The internal IP addresses of the two networks do not collide. While I expect it is theoretically possible to use a combination of VPN technology and NAT to get this to work, I expect it to be a configuration nightmare.

If you find that you are trying to connect two networks, both of which, internally, use the same private IP address range (e.g., both of them use 192.168.1.x), then one of the networks will have to be renumbered.

The network topology might look something like this:

Notice the two public IP addresses. I'll use the letters to refer to them in the rest of this article. Anywhere you see those letters in this article, replace them with your own public IP addresses. Note also that internally, the two gateway machines have .1 IP addresses, and that the two networks have different private IP addresses (192.168.1.x and 192.168.2.x respectively). All the machines on the private networks have been configured to use the .1 machine as their default gateway.

The intention is that, from a network point of view, each network should view the machines on the other network as though they were directly attached the same router -- albeit a slightly slow router with an occasional tendency to drop packets.

This means that (for example), machine 192.168.1.20 should be able to run

ping 192.168.2.34

and have it work, transparently. Windows machines should be able to see the machines on the other network, browse file shares, and so on, in exactly the same way that they can browse machines on the local network.

And the whole thing has to be secure. This means that traffic between the two networks has to be encrypted.

Creating a VPN between these two networks is a multi-step process. The stages are as follows:

  1. Create a ``virtual'' network link between the two networks, across the Internet. Test it, using tools like ping(8), to make sure it works.

  2. Apply security policies to ensure that traffic between the two networks is transparently encrypted and decrypted as necessary. Test this, using tools like tcpdump(1), to ensure that traffic is encrypted.

  3. Configure additional software on the FreeBSD gateways, to allow Windows machines to see one another across the VPN.

10.10.3.1. Step 1: Creating and testing a ``virtual'' network link

Suppose that you were logged in to the gateway machine on network #1 (with public IP address A.B.C.D, private IP address 192.168.1.1), and you ran ping 192.168.2.1, which is the private address of the machine with IP address W.X.Y.Z. What needs to happen in order for this to work?

  1. The gateway machine needs to know how to reach 192.168.2.1. In other words, it needs to have a route to 192.168.2.1.

  2. Private IP addresses, such as those in the 192.168.x range are not supposed to appear on the Internet at large. Instead, each packet you send to 192.168.2.1 will need to be wrapped up inside another packet. This packet will need to appear to be from A.B.C.D, and it will have to be sent to W.X.Y.Z. This process is called encapsulation.

  3. Once this packet arrives at W.X.Y.Z it will need to ``unencapsulated'', and delivered to 192.168.2.1.

You can think of this as requiring a ``tunnel'' between the two networks. The two ``tunnel mouths'' are the IP addresses A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z, and the tunnel must be told the addresses of the private IP addresses that will be allowed to pass through it. The tunnel is used to transfer traffic with private IP addresses across the public Internet.

This tunnel is created by using the generic interface, or gif devices on FreeBSD. As you can imagine, the gif interface on each gateway host must be configured with four IP addresses; two for the public IP addresses, and two for the private IP addresses.

Support for the gif device must be compiled in to the FreeBSD kernel on both machines. You can do this by adding the line:

pseudo-device gif

to the kernel configuration files on both machines, and then compile, install, and reboot as normal.

Configuring the tunnel is a two step process. First the tunnel must be told what the outside (or public) IP addresses are, using gifconfig(8). Then the private IP addresses must be configured using ifconfig(8).

On the gateway machine on network #1 you would run the following two commands to configure the tunnel.

gifconfig gif0 A.B.C.D W.X.Y.Z
ifconfig gif0 inet 192.168.1.1 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff

On the other gateway machine you run the same commands, but with the order of the IP addresses reversed.

gifconfig gif0 W.X.Y.Z A.B.C.D
ifconfig gif0 inet 192.168.2.1 192.168.1.1 netmask 0xffffffff

You can then run:

gifconfig gif0

to see the configuration. For example, on the network #1 gateway, you would see this:

# gifconfig gif0
gif0: flags=8011<UP,POINTTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1280
inet 192.168.1.1 --> 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff
physical address inet A.B.C.D --> W.X.Y.Z

As you can see, a tunnel has been created between the physical addresses A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z, and the traffic allowed through the tunnel is that between 192.168.1.1 and 192.168.2.1.

This will also have added an entry to the routing table on both machines, which you can examine with the command netstat -rn. This output is from the gateway host on network #1.

# netstat -rn
Routing tables

Internet:
Destination      Gateway       Flags    Refs    Use    Netif  Expire
...
192.168.2.1      192.168.1.1   UH        0        0    gif0
...

As the ``Flags'' value indicates, this is a host route, which means that each gateway knows how to reach the other gateway, but they do not know how to reach the rest of their respective networks. That problem will be fixed shortly.

It is likely that you are running a firewall on both machines. This will need to be circumvented for your VPN traffic. You might want to allow all traffic between both networks, or you might want to include firewall rules that protect both ends of the VPN from one another.

It greatly simplifies testing if you configure the firewall to allow all traffic through the VPN. You can always tighten things up later. If you are using ipfw(8) on the gateway machines then a command like

ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any via gif0

will allow all traffic between the two end points of the VPN, without affecting your other firewall rules. Obviously you will need to run this command on both gateway hosts.

This is sufficient to allow each gateway machine to ping the other. On 192.168.1.1, you should be able to run

ping 192.168.2.1

and get a response, and you should be able to do the same thing on the other gateway machine.

However, you will not be able to reach internal machines on either network yet. This is because of the routing -- although the gateway machines know how to reach one another, they do not know how to reach the network behind each one.

To solve this problem you must add a static route on each gateway machine. The command to do this on the first gateway would be:

route add 192.168.2.0 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffff00

This says ``In order to reach the hosts on the network 192.168.2.0, send the packets to the host 192.168.2.1''. You will need to run a similar command on the other gateway, but with the 192.168.1.x addresses instead.

IP traffic from hosts on one network will now be able to reach hosts on the other network.

That has now created two thirds of a VPN between the two networks, in as much as it is ``virtual'' and it is a ``network''. It is not private yet. You can test this using ping(8) and tcpdump(1). Log in to the gateway host and run

tcpdump dst host 192.168.2.1

In another log in session on the same host run

ping 192.168.2.1

You will see output that looks something like this:

16:10:24.018080 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request
16:10:24.018109 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply
16:10:25.018814 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request
16:10:25.018847 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply
16:10:26.028896 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request
16:10:26.029112 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply

As you can see, the ICMP messages are going back and forth unencrypted. If you had used the -s parameter to tcpdump(1) to grab more bytes of data from the packets you would see more information.

Obviously this is unacceptable. The next section will discuss securing the link between the two networks so that it all traffic is automatically encrypted.

Summary:

  • Configure both kernels with ``pseudo-device gif''.

  • Edit /etc/rc.conf on gateway host #1 and add the following lines (replacing IP addresses as necessary).

    gifconfig_gif0="A.B.C.D W.X.Y.Z"
ifconfig_gif0="inet 192.168.1.1 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff"
static_routes="vpn"
route_vpn="192.168.2.0 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffff00"

  • Edit your firewall script (/etc/rc.firewall, or similar) on both hosts, and add

    ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any via gif0

  • Make similar changes to /etc/rc.conf on gateway host #2, reversing the order of IP addresses.

10.10.3.2. Step 2: Securing the link

To secure the link we will be using IPsec. IPsec provides a mechanism for two hosts to agree on an encryption key, and to then use this key in order to encrypt data between the two hosts.

The are two areas of configuration to be considered here.

  1. There must be a mechanism for two hosts to agree on the encryption mechanism to use. Once two hosts have agreed on this mechanism there is said to be a ``security association'' between them.

  2. There must be a mechanism for specifying which traffic should be encrypted. Obviously, you don't want to encrypt all your outgoing traffic -- you only want to encrypt the traffic that is part of the VPN. The rules that you put in place to determine what traffic will be encrypted are called ``security policies''.

Security associations and security policies are both maintained by the kernel, and can be modified by userland programs. However, before you can do this you must configure the kernel to support IPsec and the Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP) protocol. This is done by configuring a kernel with:

options IPSEC
options IPSEC_ESP

and recompiling, reinstalling, and rebooting. As before you will need to do this to the kernels on both of the gateway hosts.

You have two choices when it comes to setting up security associations. You can configure them by hand between two hosts, which entails choosing the encryption algorithm, encryption keys, and so forth, or you can use daemons that implement the Internet Key Exchange protocol (IKE) to do this for you.

I recommend the latter. Apart from anything else, it is easier to set up.

Editing and displaying security policies is carried out using setkey(8). By analogy, setkey is to the kernel's security policy tables as route(8) is to the kernel's routing tables. setkey can also display the current security associations, and to continue the analogy further, is akin to netstat -r in that respect.

There are a number of choices for daemons to manage security associations with FreeBSD. This article will describe how to use one of these, racoon. racoon is in the FreeBSD ports collection, in the security/ category, and is installed in the usual way.

racoon must be run on both gateway hosts. On each host it is configured with the IP address of the other end of the VPN, and a secret key (which you choose, and must be the same on both gateways).

The two daemons then contact one another, confirm that they are who they say they are (by using the secret key that you configured). The daemons then generate a new secret key, and use this to encrypt the traffic over the VPN. They periodically change this secret, so that even if an attacker were to crack one of the keys (which is as theoretically close to unfeasible as it gets) it won't do them much good -- by the time they've cracked the key the two daemons have chosen another one.

racoon's configuration is stored in ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon. You should find a configuration file there, which should not need to be changed too much. The other component of racoon's configuration, which you will need to change, is the ``pre-shared key''.

The default racoon configuration expects to find this in the file ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon/psk.txt. It is important to note that the pre-shared key is not the key that will be used to encrypt your traffic across the VPN link, it is simply a token that allows the key management daemons to trust one another.

psk.txt contains a line for each remote site you are dealing with. In this example, where there are two sites, each psk.txt file will contain one line (because each end of the VPN is only dealing with one other end).

On gateway host #1 this line should look like this:

W.X.Y.Z            secret

That is, the public IP address of the remote end, whitespace, and a text string that provides the secret. Obviously, you shouldn't use ``secret'' as your key -- the normal rules for choosing a password apply.

On gateway host #2 the line would look like this

A.B.C.D            secret

That is, the public IP address of the remote end, and the same secret key. psk.txt must be mode 0600 (i.e., only read/write to root) before racoon will run.

You must run racoon on both gateway machines. You will also need to add some firewall rules to allow the IKE traffic, which is carried over UDP to the ISAKMP (Internet Security Association Key Management Protocol) port. Again, this should be fairly early in your firewall ruleset.

ipfw add 1 allow udp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z isakmp
ipfw add 1 allow udp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D isakmp

Once racoon is running you can try pinging one gateway host from the other. The connection is still not encrypted, but racoon will then set up the security associations between the two hosts -- this might take a moment, and you may see this as a short delay before the ping commands start responding.

Once the security association has been set up you can view it using setkey(8). Run

setkey -D

on either host to view the security association information.

That's one half of the problem. They other half is setting your security policies.

To create a sensible security policy, let's review what's been set up so far. This discussions hold for both ends of the link.

Each IP packet that you send out has a header that contains data about the packet. The header includes the IP addresses of both the source and destination. As we already know, private IP addresses, such as the 192.168.x.y range are not supposed to appear on the public Internet. Instead, they must first be encapsulated inside another packet. This packet must have the public source and destination IP addresses substituted for the private addresses.

So if your outgoing packet started looking like this:

Then it will be encapsulated inside another packet, looking something like this:

This encapsulation is carried out by the gif device. As you can see, the packet now has real IP addresses on the outside, and our original packet has been wrapped up as data inside the packet that will be put out on the Internet.

Obviously, we want all traffic between the VPNs to be encrypted. You might try putting this in to words, as:

``If a packet leaves from A.B.C.D, and it is destined for W.X.Y.Z, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations.''

``If a packet arrives from W.X.Y.Z, and it is destined for A.B.C.D, then decrypt it, using the necessary security associations.''

That's close, but not quite right. If you did this, all traffic to and from W.X.Y.Z, even traffic that was not part of the VPN, would be encrypted. That's not quite what you want. The correct policy is as follows

``If a packet leaves from A.B.C.D, and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined for W.X.Y.Z, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations.''

``If a packet arrives from W.X.Y.Z, and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined for A.B.C.D, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations.''

A subtle change, but a necessary one.

Security policies are also set using setkey(8). setkey(8) features a configuration language for defining the policy. You can either enter configuration instructions via stdin, or you can use the -f option to specify a filename that contains configuration instructions.

The configuration on gateway host #1 (which has the public IP address A.B.C.D) to force all outbound traffic to W.X.Y.Z to be encrypted is:

spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require;

Put these commands in a file (e.g., /etc/ipsec.conf) and then run

# setkey -f /etc/ipsec.conf

spdadd tells setkey(8) that we want to add a rule to the secure policy database. The rest of this line specifies which packets will match this policy. A.B.C.D/32 and W.X.Y.Z/32 are the IP addresses and netmasks that identify the network or hosts that this policy will apply to. In this case, we want it to apply to traffic between these two hosts. ipencap tells the kernel that this policy should only apply to packets that encapsulate other packets. -P out says that this policy applies to outgoing packets, and ipsec says that the packet will be secured.

The second line specifies how this packet will be encrypted. esp is the protocol that will be used, while tunnel indicates that the packet will be further encapsulated in an IPsec packet. The repeated use of A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z is used to select the security association to use, and the final require mandates that packets must be encrypted if they match this rule.

This rule only matches outgoing packets. You will need a similar rule to match incoming packets.

spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require;

Note the in instead of out in this case, and the necessary reversal of the IP addresses.

The other gateway host (which has the public IP address W.X.Y.Z) will need similar rules.

spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require;
       spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require;

Finally, you need to add firewall rules to allow ESP and IPENCAP packets back and forth. These rules will need to be added to both hosts.

ipfw add 1 allow esp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z
ipfw add 1 allow esp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D
ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z
ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D

Because the rules are symmetric you can use the same rules on each gateway host.

Outgoing packets will now look something like this:

When they are received by the far end of the VPN they will first be decrypted (using the security associations that have been negotiated by racoon). Then they will enter the gif interface, which will unwrap the second layer, until you are left with the innermost packet, which can then travel in to the inner network.

You can check the security using the same ping(8) test from earlier. First, log in to the A.B.C.D gateway machine, and run:

tcpdump dst host 192.168.2.1

In another log in session on the same host run

ping 192.168.2.1

This time you should see output like the following:

XXX tcpdump output

Now, as you can see, tcpdump(1) shows the ESP packets. If you try to examine them with the -s option you will see (apparently) gibberish, because of the encryption.

Congratulations. You have just set up a VPN between two remote sites.

Summary

  • Configure both kernels with:

    options IPSEC
options IPSEC_ESP

  • Install security/racoon. Edit ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon/psk.txt on both gateway hosts, adding an entry for the remote host's IP address and a secret key that they both know. Make sure this file is mode 0600.

  • Add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf on each host:

    ipsec_enable="YES"
ipsec_file="/etc/ipsec.conf"

  • Create an /etc/ipsec.conf on each host that contains the necessary spdadd lines. On gateway host #1 this would be:

    spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P out ipsec
  esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require;
spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P in ipsec
  esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require;

    On gateway host #2 this would be:

    spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P out ipsec
  esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require;
spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P in ipsec
  esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require;

  • Add firewall rules to allow IKE, ESP, and IPENCAP traffic to both hosts:

    ipfw add 1 allow udp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z isakmp
ipfw add 1 allow udp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D isakmp
ipfw add 1 allow esp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z
ipfw add 1 allow esp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D
ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z
ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D

The previous two steps should suffice to get the VPN up and running. Machines on each network will be able to refer to one another using IP addresses, and all traffic across the link will be automatically and securely encrypted.

10.11. OpenSSH

Contributed by Chern Lee.

OpenSSH is a set of network connectivity tools used to access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct replacement for rlogin, rsh, rcp, and telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through SSH. OpenSSH encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping, connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks.

OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0.

10.11.1. Advantages of Using OpenSSH

Normally, when using telnet(1) or rlogin(1), data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form. Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can steal your user/password information or data transferred in your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and encryption methods to prevent this from happening.

10.11.2. Enabling sshd

Be sure to make the following addition to your rc.conf file:

sshd_enable="YES"

This will load sshd(8), the daemon program for OpenSSH, the next time your system initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run directly the sshd daemon by typing sshd on the command line.

10.11.3. SSH Client

The ssh(1) utility works similarly to rlogin(1).

# ssh user@example.com
Host key not found from the list of known hosts.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Host 'example.com' added to the list of known hosts.
user@example.com's password: *******

The login will continue just as it would have if a session was created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a key fingerprint system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the client connects. The user is prompted to enter yes only when connecting for the first time. Future attempts to login are all verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or ~/.ssh/known_hosts2 for SSH v2 fingerprints.

By default, OpenSSH servers are configured to accept both SSH v1 and SSH v2 connections. The client, however, can choose between the two. Version 2 is known to be more robust and secure than its predecessor.

The ssh(1) command can be forced to use either protocol by passing it the -1 or -2 argument for v1 and v2, respectively.

10.11.4. Secure Copy

The scp(1) command works similarly to rcp(1); it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a secure fashion.

# scp user@example.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT
user@example.com's password: *******
COPYRIGHT            100% |*****************************|  4735
00:00
#

Since the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the previous example, it is verified when using scp(1) here.

The arguments passed to scp(1) are similar to cp(1), with the file or files in the first argument, and the destination in the second. Since the file is fetched over the network, through SSH, one or more of the file arguments takes on the form user@host:<path_to_remote_file>.

10.11.5. Configuration

The system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh directory.

ssh_config configures the client settings, while sshd_config configures the daemon.

Additionally, the sshd_program (/usr/sbin/sshd by default), and sshd_flags rc.conf options can provide more levels of configuration.

10.11.6. ssh-keygen

Instead of using passwords, ssh-keygen(1) can be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user:

% ssh-keygen -t rsa1
Initializing random number generator...
Generating p:  .++ (distance 66)
Generating q:  ..............................++ (distance 498)
Computing the keys...
Key generation complete.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity):
Enter passphrase:
Enter the same passphrase again:
Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity.
...

ssh-keygen(1) will create a public and private key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys of the remote machine in order for the setup to work.

This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon RSA authentication instead of passwords.

Note: The -t rsa1 option will create RSA keys for use by SSH protocol version 1. If you want to use RSA keys with the SSH protocol version 2, you have to use the command ssh-keygen -t rsa.

If a passphrase is used in ssh-keygen(1), the user will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private key.

A SSH protocol version 2 DSA key can be created for the same purpose by using the ssh-keygen -t dsa command. This will create a public/private DSA key for use in SSH protocol version 2 sessions only. The public key is stored in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub, while the private key is in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.

DSA public keys are also placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the remote machine.

ssh-agent(1) and ssh-add(1) are utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys.

WarningThe various options and files can be different according to the OpenSSH version you have on your system, to avoid problems you should consult the ssh-keygen(1) manual page.

10.11.7. SSH Tunneling

OpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate another protocol in an encrypted session.

The following command tells ssh(1) to create a tunnel for telnet:

% ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.example.com
%

The ssh command is used with the following options:

-2

Forces ssh to use version 2 of the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older SSH servers)

-N

Indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted, ssh would initiate a normal session.

-f

Forces ssh to run in the background.

-L

Indicates a local tunnel in localport:remotehost:remoteport fashion.

user@foo.example.com

The remote SSH server.

An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on localhost on the specified port. It then forwards any connection received on the local host/port via the SSH connection to the specified remote host and port.

In the example, port 5023 on localhost is being forwarded to port 23 on localhost of the remote machine. Since 23 is telnet, this would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel.

This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols such as SMTP, POP3, FTP, etc.

Example 10-1. Using SSH to Create a Secure Tunnel for SMTP

% ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.example.com
user@mailserver.example.com's password: *****
% telnet localhost 5025
Trying 127.0.0.1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
220 mailserver.example.com ESMTP

This can be used in conjunction with an ssh-keygen(1) and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user.

10.11.7.1. Practical SSH Tunneling Examples

10.11.7.1.1. Secure Access of a POP3 Server

At work, there is an SSH server that accepts connections from the outside. On the same office network resides a mail server running a POP3 server. The network, or network path between your home and office may or may not be completely trustable. Because of this, you need to check your e-mail in a secure manner. The solution is to create an SSH connection to your office's SSH server, and tunnel through to the mail server.

% ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.example.com:110 user@ssh-server.example.com
user@ssh-server.example.com's password: ******

When the tunnel is up and running, you can point your mail client to send POP3 requests to localhost port 2110. A connection here will be forwarded securely across the tunnel to mail.example.com.

10.11.7.1.2. Bypassing a Draconian Firewall

Some network administrators impose extremely draconian firewall rules, filtering not only incoming connections, but outgoing connections. You may be only given access to contact remote machines on ports 22 and 80 for SSH and web surfing.

You may wish to access another (perhaps non-work related) service, such as an Ogg Vorbis server to stream music. If this Ogg Vorbis server is streaming on some other port than 22 or 80, you will not be able to access it.

The solution is to create an SSH connection to a machine outside of your network's firewall, and use it to tunnel to the Ogg Vorbis server.

% ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.example.com:8000 user@unfirewalled-system.example.org
user@unfirewalled-system.example.org's password: *******

Your streaming client can now be pointed to localhost port 8888, which will be forwarded over to music.example.com port 8000, successfully evading the firewall.

10.11.8. Further Reading

OpenSSH

ssh(1) scp(1) ssh-keygen(1) ssh-agent(1) ssh-add(1)

sshd(8) sftp-server(8)

10.12. Mandatory Access Control (MAC)

Sponsored by DARPA and Network Associates Laboratories. Contributed by Robert Watson.

FreeBSD 5.0 includes a new kernel security framework, the TrustedBSD MAC Framework. The MAC Framework permits compile-time, boot-time, and run-time extension of the kernel access control policy, and can be used to load support for Mandatory Access Control (MAC), and custom security modules such as hardening modules. The MAC Framework is currently considered to be an experimental feature, and should not yet be used in production environments without careful consideration. It is anticipated that the MAC Framework will be appropriate for more widespread production use by FreeBSD 5.2.

When configured into a kernel, the MAC Framework permits security modules to augment the existing kernel access control model, restricting access to system services and objects. For example, the mac_bsdextended(4) module augments file system access control, permitting administrators to provide a firewall-like ruleset constraining access to file system objects based on user ids and group membership. Some modules require little or no configuration, such as mac_seeotheruids(4), whereas others perform ubiquitous object labeling, such as mac_biba(4) and mac_mls(4), and require extensive configuration.

To enable the MAC Framework in your system kernel, you must add the following entry to your kernel configuration:

options MAC

Security policy modules shipped with the base system may be loaded using kldload(8) or in the boot loader(8) They may also be compiled directly into the kernel using the following options, if the use of modules is not desired.

Different MAC policies may be configured in different ways; frequently, MAC policy modules export configuration parameters using the sysctl(8) MIB using the security.mac namespace. Policies relying on file system or other labels may require a configuration step that involves assigning initial labels to system objects or creating a policy configuration file. For information on how to configure and use each policy module, see its man page.

A variety of tools are available to configure the MAC Framework and labels maintained by various policies. Extensions have been made to the login and credential management mechanisms (setusercontext(3)) to support initial user labeling using login.conf(5). In addition, modifications have been made to su(1), ps(1), ls(1), and ifconfig(8) to inspect and set labels on processes, files, and interfaces. In addition, several new tools have been added to manage labels on objects, including getfmac(8), setfmac(8), and setfsmac(8) to manage labels on files, and getpmac(8) and setpmac(8).

What follows is a list of policy modules shipped with FreeBSD 5.0.

10.12.1. Biba Integrity Policy (mac_biba)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_biba.ko

Kernel option: MAC_BIBA

The Biba Integrity Policy (mac_biba(4)) provides for hierarchical and non-hierarchical labeling of all system objects with integrity data, and the strict enforcement of an information flow policy to prevent corruption of high integrity subjects and data by low-integrity subjects. Integrity is enforced by preventing high integrity subjects (generally processes) from reading low integrity objects (often files), and preventing low integrity subjects from writing to high integrity objects. This security policy is frequently used in commercial trusted systems to provide strong protection for the Trusted Code Base (TCB). Because it provides ubiquitous labeling, the Biba integrity policy must be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot.

10.12.2. File System Firewall Policy (mac_bsdextended)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_bsdextended.ko

Kernel option: MAC_BSDEXTENDED

The File System Firewall Policy (mac_bsdextended(4)) provides an extension to the BSD file system permission model, permitting the administrator to define a set of firewall-like rules for limiting access to file system objects owned by other users and groups. Managed using ugidfw(8), rules may limit access to files and directories based on the uid and gids of the process attempting the access, and the owner and group of the target of the access attempt. All rules are restrictive, so they may be placed in any order. This policy requires no prior configuration or labeling, and may be appropriate in multi-user environments where mandatory limits on inter-user data exchange are required. Caution should be exercised in limiting access to files owned by the super-user or other system user ids, as many useful programs and directories are owned by these users. As with a network firewall, improper application of file system firewall rules may render the system unusable. New tools to manage the rule set may be easily written using the libugidfw(3) library.

10.12.3. Interface Silencing Policy (mac_ifoff)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_ifoff.ko

Kernel option: MAC_IFOFF

The interface silencing policy (mac_ifoff(4)) prohibits the use of network interfaces during the boot until explicitly enabled, preventing spurious stack output stack response to incoming packets. This is appropriate for use in environments where the monitoring of packets is required, but no traffic may be generated.

10.12.4. Low-Watermark Mandatory Access Control (LOMAC) (mac_lomac)

Vendor: Network Associates Laboratories

Module name: mac_lomac.ko

Kernel option: MAC_LOMAC

Similar to the Biba Integrity Policy, the LOMAC policy (mac_lomac(4)) relies on the ubiquitous labeling of all system objects with integrity labels. Unlike Biba, LOMAC permits high integrity subjects to read from low integrity objects, but then downgrades the label on the subject to prevent future writes to high integrity objects. This policy may provide for greater compatibility, as well as require less initial configuration than Biba. However, as with Biba, it ubiquitously labels objects and must therefore be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot.

10.12.5. Multi-Level Security Policy (MLS) (mac_mls)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_mls.ko

Kernel option: MAC_MLS

Multi-Level Security (MLS) (mac_mls(4)) provides for hierarchical and non-hierarchical labeling of all system objects with sensitivity data, and the strict enforcement of an information flow policy to prevent the leakage of confidential data to untrusted parties. The logical conjugate of the Biba Integrity Policy, MLS is frequently shipped in commercial trusted operating systems to protect data secrecy in multi-user environments. Hierarchal labels provide support for the notion of clearances and classifications in traditional parlance; non-hierarchical labels provide support for ``need-to-know.'' As with Biba, ubiquitous labeling of objects occurs, and it must therefore be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot. As with Biba, extensive initial configuration may be required.

10.12.6. MAC Stub Policy (mac_none)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_none.ko

Kernel option: MAC_NONE

The None policy (mac_none(4)) provides a stub sample policy for developers, implementing all entry points, but not changing the system access control policy. Running this on a production system would not be highly beneficial.

10.12.7. Process Partition Policy (mac_partition)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_partition.ko

Kernel option: MAC_PARTITION

The Partition policy (mac_partition(4)) provides for a simple process visibility limitation, assigning labels to processes identifying what numeric system partition they are present in. If none, all other processes are visible using standard monitoring tools; if a partition identifier is present, then only other processes in the same partition are visible. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time.

10.12.8. See Other Uids Policy (mac_seeotheruids)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_seeotheruids.ko

Kernel option: MAC_SEEOTHERUIDS

The See Other Uids policy (mac_seeotheruids(4)) implements a similar process visibility model to mac_partition, except that it relies on process credentials to control visibility of processes, rather than partition labels. This policy may be configured to exempt certain users and groups, including permitting system operators to view all processes without special privilege. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time.

10.12.9. MAC Framework Test Policy (mac_test)

Vendor: TrustedBSD Project

Module name: mac_test.ko

Kernel option: MAC_TEST

The Test policy (mac_test(4)) provides a regression test environment for the MAC Framework, and will cause a fail-stop in the event that internal MAC Framework assertions about proper data labeling fail. This module can be used to detect failures to properly label system objects in the kernel implementation. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time.

10.13. File System Access Control Lists

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

In conjunction with file system enhancements like snapshots, FreeBSD 5.0 and later offers the security of File System Access Control Lists (ACLs).

Access Control Lists extend the standard UNIX permission model in a highly compatible (POSIX.1e) way. This feature permits an administrator to make use of and take advantage of a more sophisticated security model.

To enable ACL support for UFS file systems, the following:

options UFS_ACL

must be compiled into the kernel. If this option has not been compiled in, a warning message will be displayed when attempting to mount a file system supporting ACLs. This option is included in the GENERIC kernel. ACLs rely on extended attributes being enabled on the file system. Extended attributes are natively supported in the next generation UNIX file system, UFS2.

Note: A higher level of administrative overhead is required to configure extended attributes on UFS1 than on UFS2. The performance of extended attributes on UFS2 is also substantially higher. As a result, UFS2 is generally recommended in preference to UFS1 for use with access control lists.

ACLs are enabled by the mount-time administrative flag, acls, which may be added to /etc/fstab. The mount-time flag can also be automatically set in a persistent manner using tunefs(8) to modify a superblock ACLs flag in the file system header. In general, it is preferred to use the superblock flag for several reasons:

  • The mount-time ACLs flag cannot be changed by a remount (mount(8) -u), only by means of a complete umount(8) and fresh mount(8). This means that ACLs cannot be enabled on the root file system after boot. It also means that you cannot change the disposition of a file system once it is in use.

  • Setting the superblock flag will cause the file system to always be mounted with ACLs enabled even if there is not an fstab entry or if the devices re-order. This prevents accidental mounting of the file system without ACLs enabled, which can result in ACLs being improperly enforced, and hence security problems.

Note: We may change the ACLs behavior to allow the flag to be enabled without a complete fresh mount(8), but we consider it desirable to discourage accidental mounting without ACLs enabled, because you can shoot your feet quite nastily if you enable ACLs, then disable them, then re-enable them without flushing the extended attributes. In general, once you have enabled ACLs on a file system, they should not be disabled, as the resulting file protections may not be compatible with those intended by the users of the system, and re-enabling ACLs may re-attach the previous ACLs to files that have since had their permissions changed, resulting in other unpredictable behavior.

File systems with ACLs enabled will show a + (plus) sign in their permission settings when viewed. For example:

drwx------  2 robert  robert  512 Dec 27 11:54 private
drwxrwx---+ 2 robert  robert  512 Dec 23 10:57 directory1
drwxrwx---+ 2 robert  robert  512 Dec 22 10:20 directory2
drwxrwx---+ 2 robert  robert  512 Dec 27 11:57 directory3
drwxr-xr-x  2 robert  robert  512 Nov 10 11:54 public_html

Here we see that the directory1, directory2, and directory3 directories are all taking advantage of ACLs. The public_html directory is not.

10.13.1. Making Use of ACLs

The file system ACLs can be viewed by the getfacl(1) utility. For instance, to view the ACL settings on the test file, one would use the command:

% getfacl test
    #file:test
    #owner:1001
    #group:1001
    user::rw-
    group::r--
    other::r--

To change the ACL settings on this file, invoke the setfacl(1) utility. Observe:

% setfacl -k test

The -k flag will remove all of the currently defined ACLs from a file or file system. The more preferable method would be to use -b as it leaves the basic fields required for ACLs to work.

% setfacl -m u:trhodes:rwx,group:web:r--,o::--- test

在前面的命令中， -m 选项被用来修改默认的 ACL 项。由于已经被先前的命令 删除，因此没有预先定义的项，于是默认的选项被恢复，并附加上指定的选项。 请小心地检查，如果你加入了一个不存在的用户或组，那么将会在 stdout 得到一条 ``Invalid argument'' 的错误提示。

10.14. FreeBSD Security Advisories

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

Like many production quality operating systems, FreeBSD publishes ``Security Advisories''. These advisories are usually mailed to the security lists and noted in the Errata only after the appropriate releases have been patched. This section will work to explain what an advisory is, how to understand it, and what measures to take in order to patch a system.

10.14.1. What does an advisory look like?

The FreeBSD security advisories look similar to the one below, taken from the freebsd-security-notifications mailing list.

=============================================================================
FreeBSD-SA-XX:XX.UTIL                                     Security Advisory
                                                          The FreeBSD Project

Topic:          denial of service due to some problem(1)

Category:       core(2)
Module:         sys(3)
Announced:      2003-09-23(4)
Credits:        Person@EMAIL-ADDRESS(5)
Affects:        All releases of FreeBSD(6)
                FreeBSD 4-STABLE prior to the correction date
Corrected:      2003-09-23 16:42:59 UTC (RELENG_4, 4.9-PRERELEASE)
                2003-09-23 20:08:42 UTC (RELENG_5_1, 5.1-RELEASE-p6)
                2003-09-23 20:07:06 UTC (RELENG_5_0, 5.0-RELEASE-p15)
                2003-09-23 16:44:58 UTC (RELENG_4_8, 4.8-RELEASE-p8)
                2003-09-23 16:47:34 UTC (RELENG_4_7, 4.7-RELEASE-p18)
                2003-09-23 16:49:46 UTC (RELENG_4_6, 4.6-RELEASE-p21)
                2003-09-23 16:51:24 UTC (RELENG_4_5, 4.5-RELEASE-p33)
                2003-09-23 16:52:45 UTC (RELENG_4_4, 4.4-RELEASE-p43)
                2003-09-23 16:54:39 UTC (RELENG_4_3, 4.3-RELEASE-p39)(7)
FreeBSD only:   NO(8)

For general information regarding FreeBSD Security Advisories,
including descriptions of the fields above, security branches, and the
following sections, please visit
http://www.FreeBSD.org/security/.

I.   Background(9)


II.  Problem Description(10)


III. Impact(11)


IV.  Workaround(12)


V.   Solution(13)


VI.  Correction details(14)


VII. References(15)
(1)
The Topic field indicates exactly what the problem is. It is basically an introduction to the current security advisory and notes the utility with the vulnerability.
(2)
The Category refers to the affected part of the system which may be one of core, contrib, or ports. The core category means that the vulnerability affects a core component of the FreeBSD operating system. The contrib category means that the vulnerability affects software contributed to the FreeBSD Project, such as sendmail. Finally the ports category indicates that the vulnerability affects add on software available as part of the ports collection.
(3)
The Module field refers to the component location, for instance sys. In this example, we see that the module, sys, is affected; therefore, this vulnerability affects a component used within the kernel.
(4)
The Announced field reflects the date said security advisory was published, or announced to the world. This means that the security team has verified that the problem does exist and that a patch has been committed to the FreeBSD source code repository.
(5)
The Credits field gives credit to the individual or organization who noticed the vulnerability and reported it.
(6)
The Affects field explains which releases of FreeBSD are affected by this vulnerability. For the kernel, a quick look over the output from ident on the affected files will help in determining the revision. For ports, the version number is listed after the port name in /var/db/pkg. If the system does not sync with the FreeBSD CVS repository and rebuild daily, chances are that it is affected.
(7)
The Corrected field indicates the date, time, time offset, and release that was corrected.
(8)
The FreeBSD only field indicates whether this vulnerability affects just FreeBSD, or if it affects other operating systems as well.
(9)
The Background field gives information on exactly what the affected utility is. Most of the time this is why the utility exists in FreeBSD, what it is used for, and a bit of information on how the utility came to be.
(10)
The Problem Description field explains the security hole in depth. This can include information on flawed code, or even how the utility could be maliciously used to open a security hole.
(11)
The Impact field describes what type of impact the problem could have on a system. For example, this could be anything from a denial of service attack, to extra privileges available to users, or even giving the attacker superuser access.
(12)
The Workaround field offers a feasible workaround to system administrators who may be incapable of upgrading the system. This may be due to time constraints, network availability, or a slew of other reasons. Regardless, security should not be taken lightly, and an affected system should either be patched or the security hole workaround should be implemented.
(13)
The Solution field offers instructions on patching the affected system. This is a step by step tested and verified method for getting a system patched and working securely.
(14)
The Correction Details field displays the CVS branch or release name with the periods changed to underscore characters. It also shows the revision number of the affected files within each branch.
(15)
The References field usually offers sources of other information. This can included web URLs, books, mailing lists, and newsgroups.

Chapter 11. Printing

Contributed by Sean Kelly. Restructured and updated by Jim Mock.

11.1. Synopsis

FreeBSD can be used to print to a wide variety of printers, from the oldest impact printer to the latest laser printers, and everything in between, allowing you to produce high quality printed output from the applications you run.

FreeBSD can also be configured to act as a print server on a network; in this capacity FreeBSD can receive print jobs from a variety of other computers, including other FreeBSD computers, Windows and Mac OS hosts. FreeBSD will ensure that one job at a time is printed, and can keep statistics on which users and machines are doing the most printing, produce ``banner'' pages showing who's printout is who's, and more.

After reading this chapter, you will know:

  • How to configure the FreeBSD print spooler.

  • How to install print filters, to handle special print jobs differently, including converting incoming documents to print formats that your printers understand.

  • How to enable header, or banner pages on your printout.

  • How to print to printers connected to other computers.

  • How to print to printers connected directly to the network.

  • How to control printer restrictions, including limiting the size of print jobs, and preventing certain users from printing.

  • How to keep printer statistics, and account for printer usage.

  • How to troubleshoot printing problems.

Before reading this chapter, you should:

  • Know how to configure and install a new kernel (Chapter 9).

11.2. Introduction

In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This chapter introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD, and will guide you through its configuration.

If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section Setting up the spooling system.

LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things:

  • It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network.

  • It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs.

  • It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer.

  • It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts.

  • It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports.

  • It can send jobs over the network to a LPD spooler on another host.

  • It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities.

  • It can account for printer usage.

Through a configuration file (/etc/printcap), and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware.

11.2.1. Why You Should Use the Spooler

If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since:

  • LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer.

  • LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually.

  • Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have.

11.3. Basic Setup

To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup:

  • See section Simple Printer Setup to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer.

  • See section Advanced Printer Setup to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting.

11.3.1. Simple Printer Setup

This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics:

  • Section Hardware Setup gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer.

  • Section Software Setup shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file (/etc/printcap).

If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see Printers With Networked Data Stream Interfaces.

Although this section is called ``Simple Printer Setup'', it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working.

11.3.1.1. Hardware Setup

This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer.

If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section Software Setup.

11.3.1.1.1. Ports and Cables

Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces:

  • Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options.

  • Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple.

    Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as ``Centronics'' interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer.

In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Newer parallel ports (EPP and ECP) and printers can communicate in both directions under FreeBSD when a IEEE1284 compliant cable is used.

Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript®. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user.

11.3.1.1.2. Parallel Ports

To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance.

Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/ppc0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/ppc1, and so on. The printer device name uses the same scheme: /dev/lpt0 for the printer on the first parallel ports etc.

11.3.1.1.3. Serial Ports

To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance.

If you are unsure what the ``proper serial cable'' is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives:

  • A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a ``DTE-to-DCE'' cable.

  • A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a ``DTE-to-DTE'' cable.

  • A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null-modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted.

You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as ``in-band'' or ``software'') flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows.

11.3.1.2. Software Setup

This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD.

Here is an outline of the steps involved:

  1. Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section Kernel Configuration tells you what you need to do.

  2. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port gives details.

  3. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section Checking Printer Communications gives some suggestions on how to do this.

  4. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. You will find out how to do this later in this chapter.

11.3.1.2.1. Kernel Configuration

The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one.

To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type:

# grep sioN /var/run/dmesg.boot

Where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following:

sio2 at port 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa
sio2: type 16550A

then the kernel supports the port.

To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type:

# grep ppcN /var/run/dmesg.boot

Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following:

ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/8 bytes threshold

then the kernel supports the port.

You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer.

To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows.

11.3.1.3. Adding /dev Entries for the Ports

Note: FreeBSD 5.0 includes the devfs filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with devfs enabled then you can safely skip this section.

Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for.

To add a /dev entry for a port:

  1. Become root with the su(1) command. Enter the root password when prompted.

  2. Change to the /dev directory:

    # cd /dev

  3. Type:

    # ./MAKEDEV port

    Where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the printer on the first parallel port, lpt1 for the printer on the second port, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on.

  4. Type:

    # ls -l port

    to make sure the device entry got created.

11.3.1.3.1. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port

When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The generic printer device driver (lpt(4)) on FreeBSD 4.X and 5.X uses the ppbus(4) system, which controls the port chipset with the ppc(4) driver.

  • The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data.

  • The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data.

The interrupt-driven method is usually somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. Some newer HP printers are claimed not to work correctly in interrupt mode, apparently due to some (not yet exactly understood) timing problem. These printers need polled mode. You should use whichever one works. Some printers will work in both modes, but are painfully slow in interrupt mode.

You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the lptcontrol(8) program.

To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel:

  1. Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for an ppc0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use ppc1 instead. Use ppc2 for the third port, and so on.

    • If you want interrupt-driven mode, for FreeBSD 4.X add the irq specifier:

      device ppc0 at isa? irq N

      Where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port.

      For FreeBSD 5.X, edit the following line:

      hint.ppc.0.irq="N"

      in the /boot/device.hints file and replace N with the right IRQ number. The kernel configuration file must also contain the ppc(4) driver:

      device ppc

    • If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier:

      For FreeBSD 4.X, use the following line in your kernel configuration file:

      device ppc0 at isa?

      For FreeBSD 5.X, simply remove in your /boot/device.hints file, the following line:

      hint.ppc.0.irq="N"

      In some cases, this is not enough to put the port in polled mode under FreeBSD 5.X. Most of time it comes from acpi(4) driver, this latter is able to probe and attach devices, and therefore, control the access mode to the printer port. You should check your acpi(4) configuration to correct this problem.

  2. Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See kernel configuration for more details.

To set the communications mode with lptcontrol(8):

  1. Type:

    # lptcontrol -i -d /dev/lptN

    to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN.

  2. Type:

    # lptcontrol -p -d /dev/lptN

    to set polled-mode for lptN.

You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See lptcontrol(8) for more information.

11.3.1.3.2. Checking Printer Communications

Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately.

To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program lptest(1) is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines.

For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice:

%!PS
100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke
310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont
(Is this thing working?) show
showpage

The above PostScript code can be placed into a file and used as shown in the examples appearing in the following sections.

Note: When this document refers to a printer language, it is assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations.

11.3.1.3.2.1. Checking a Parallel Printer

This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port.

To test a printer on a parallel port:

  1. Become root with su(1).

  2. Send data to the printer.

    • If the printer can print plain text, then use lptest(1). Type:

      # lptest > /dev/lptN

      Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero.

    • If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type:

      # cat > /dev/lptN

      Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is.

      Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type:

      # cat file > /dev/lptN

      Where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer.

You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later.

11.3.1.3.2.2. Checking a Serial Printer

This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port.

To test a printer on a serial port:

  1. Become root with su(1).

  2. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry:

    printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity

    Where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero).

    Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity:

    printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none

  3. Connect to the printer with tip(1). Type:

    # tip printer

    If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN.

  4. Send data to the printer.

    • If the printer can print plain text, then use lptest(1). Type:

      % $lptest

    • If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole program. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D.

      Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type:

      % >file

      Where file is the name of the file containing the program. After tip(1) sends the file, press any required end-of-file key.

You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later.

11.3.1.4. Enabling the Spooler: the /etc/printcap File

At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer.

You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect.

The format of the printcap(5) file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the cgetent(3).

The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps:

  1. Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see the Naming the Printer section for more information on naming.

  2. Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see the Suppressing Header Pages section for more information.

  3. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see the Making the Spooling Directory section for more information.

  4. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see the Identifying the Printer Device for more information. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the ms# capability which is discussed in the Configuring Spooler Communications Parameters section.

  5. Install a plain text input filter; see the Installing the Text Filter section for details.

  6. Test the setup by printing something with the lpr(1) command. More details are available in the Trying It Out and Troubleshooting sections.

Note: Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand.

Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. The section entitled Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells how to do this.

11.3.1.4.1. Naming the Printer

The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number of aliases for the printer.

At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use.

Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model.

Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias.

In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer):

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:

In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4.

11.3.1.4.2. Suppressing Header Pages

The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages.

To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is an example /etc/printcap with sh added:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:

Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character.

11.3.1.4.3. Making the Spooling Directory

The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live.

Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running mkdir(1).

It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below:

# mkdir /var/spool/printer-name

However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo:

# mkdir /var/spool/lpd
# mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan
# mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo

Note: If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers:

# chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan
# chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo
# chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan
# chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo

Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:

Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash.

If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default.

11.3.1.4.4. Identifying the Printer Device

In the Adding /dev Entries for the Ports section, we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer).

List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability.

In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:

If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD.

If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section entitled, Installing the Text Filter. Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section.

11.3.1.4.5. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters

For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since:

  • It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program.

  • It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings.

The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability:

br#bps-rate

Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400, 57600, or 115200 bits-per-second.

ms#stty-mode

Sets the options for the terminal device after opening the device. stty(1) explains the available options.

When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it sets the characteristics of the device to those specified with the ms# capability. Of particular interest will be the parenb, parodd, cs5, cs6, cs7, cs8, cstopb, crtscts, and ixon modes, which are explained in the stty(1) manual page.

Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the mode, we will set no parity with -parenb, 8-bit characters with cs8, no modem control with clocal and hardware flow control with crtscts:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:
11.3.1.4.6. Installing the Text Filter

We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see the Filters section.

For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section entitled lpf: a Text Filter.

First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor:

#!/bin/sh
#
# if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd
# Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple
#
# Simply copies stdin to stdout.  Ignores all filter arguments.

/bin/cat && exit 0
exit 2

Make the file executable:

# chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple

And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:
11.3.1.4.7. Turn on LPD

lpd(8) is run from /etc/rc, controlled by the lpd_enable variable. This variable defaults to NO. If you have not done so already, add the line:

lpd_enable="YES"

to /etc/rc.conf, and then either restart your machine, or just run lpd(8).

# lpd
11.3.1.4.8. Trying It Out

You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command lpr(1), which submits a job for printing.

You can combine lpr(1) with the lptest(1) program, introduced in section Checking Printer Communications to generate some test text.

To test the simple LPD setup:

Type:

# lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name

Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type lpr(1) without any -P argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using lptest(1). You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file.

For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using lptest(1), then your results should look like the following:

!"#$%&'()*+,-./01234
"#$%&'()*+,-./012345
#$%&'()*+,-./0123456
$%&'()*+,-./01234567
%&'()*+,-./012345678

To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running lptest(1) with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each.

If the printer did not work, see the Troubleshooting section.

11.4. Advanced Printer Setup

This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage.

11.4.1. Filters

Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter--an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section Installing the Text Filter).

However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write.

Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD Ports Collection.

Here is what you will find in this section:

  • Section How Filters Work, tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an understanding of what is happening ``under the hood'' when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers.

  • LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. You should read this section if you have a PostScript printer.

  • PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section Simulating PostScript on Non PostScript Printers tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a non PostScript printer. You should read this section if you do not have a PostScript printer.

  • Section Conversion Filters tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section.

  • Section Output Filters tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see Header Pages), you can probably skip that section altogether.

  • Section lpf: a Text Filter describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf.

11.4.1.1. How Filters Work

As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer.

When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default).

Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the lpr(1) command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see Output Filters for details).

There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap:

  • The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list:

    filter-name [-c] -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file

    where
    -c

    appears if the job is submitted with lpr -l

    width

    is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132

    length

    is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66

    indent

    is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0

    login

    is the account name of the user printing the file

    host

    is the host name from which the job was submitted

    acct-file

    is the name of the accounting file from the af capability.



  • A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section Conversion Filters tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments:

    filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file

    where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0).

  • The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section Output Filters describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter:

    filter-name -wwidth -llength

    which are identical to the text filters -w and -l arguments.

Filters should also exit with the following exit status:

exit 0

If the filter printed the file successfully.

exit 1

If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status.

exit 2

If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file.

The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries.

If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes.

11.4.1.2. Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript® Printers

If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all.

But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result.

How do we do this?

If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as ``toner low'' or ``paper jam''). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer.

lprps is part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap:

:if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:

You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode.

If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer
#  Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif
#

IFS="" read -r first_line
first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'`

if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then
    #
    #  PostScript job, print it.
    #
    echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0
    exit 2
else
    #
    #  Plain text, convert it, then print it.
    #
    ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0
    exit 2
fi

In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate.

11.4.1.3. Simulating PostScript on Non PostScript Printers

PostScript is the de facto standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Aladdin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer.

Ghostscript is in the FreeBSD Ports Collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well.

To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand.

Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the -sDEVICE argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.)

#!/bin/sh
#
#  ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/ifhp

#
#  Treat LF as CR+LF:
#
printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2

#
#  Read first two characters of the file
#
IFS="" read -r first_line
first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'`

if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then
    #
    #  It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it.
    #
    #  Note that PostScript files are actually interpreted programs,
    #  and those programs are allowed to write to stdout, which will
    #  mess up the printed output.  So, we redirect stdout to stderr
    #  and then make descriptor 3 go to stdout, and have Ghostscript
    #  write its output there.  Exercise for the clever reader:
    #  capture the stderr output from Ghostscript and mail it back to
    #  the user originating the print job.
    #
    exec 3>&1 1>&2
    /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 \
        -sOutputFile=/dev/fd/3 - && exit 0
else
    #
    #  Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form feed
    #  at the end to eject the last page.
    #
    echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && 
exit 0
fi

exit 2

Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability:

:if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:

That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully.

11.4.1.4. Conversion Filters

After completing the simple setup described in Simple Printer Setup, the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text).

11.4.1.4.1. Why Install Conversion Filters?

Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this:

% dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi
% lpr seaweed-analysis.ps

By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it:

% lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi

We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the -d option. Section Formatting and Conversion Options lists the conversion options.

For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section Installing the Text Filter) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand.

11.4.1.4.2. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install?

You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter.

The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command:

File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option
cifplot cf -c
DVI df -d
plot gf -g
ditroff nf -n
FORTRAN text rf -f
troff tf -f
raster vf -v
plain text if none, -p, or -l

In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap.

Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that lpr -g mean ``print Printerleaf files.''

11.4.1.4.3. Installing Conversion Filters

Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them.

To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap.

In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo.

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
        :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:

The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf
#
# Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d
#
exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@"

This script runs dvips in filter mode (the -f argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed.

11.4.1.4.4. More Conversion Filter Examples

Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate.

This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf
                  
PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH
giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \
    && exit 0 \
    || exit 2

It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data.

Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host orchid
#
teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\
        :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:

The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print.
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf
#
exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@"

The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print.
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf
#
exec grops

That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter:

:tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf:

Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak:

#!/bin/sh
#
# hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si:
# Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf
#

printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\033&l0H" &&
 exit 0
exit 2

And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter:

:rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf:

Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter:

:df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf:

Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes.

dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input.

The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user.

Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp.

Here, finally, is the filter:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf

PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH

#
#  Define a function to clean up our temporary files.  These exist
#  in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory
#  for the printer.
#
cleanup() {
   rm -f hpdf$$.dvi
}

#
#  Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message
#  and exit 2.  Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the
#  job.
#
fatal() {
    echo "$@" 1>&2
    cleanup
    exit 2
}

#
#  If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT
#  (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves.
#
trap cleanup 1 2 15 

#
#  Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files.
#
cleanup

#
#  Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print).
#
ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0"

#
#  Make LF = CR+LF
#
printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer"

# 
#  Convert and print.  Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be
#  reliable, so we ignore it.
#
dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi

#
#  Clean up and exit
#
cleanup
exit 0
11.4.1.4.5. Automated Conversion: an Alternative to Conversion Filters

All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the lpr(1) command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper.

Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types--and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them.

The FreeBSD Ports Collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print.

11.4.1.5. Output Filters

The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then:

  • LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job.

  • LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter.

  • LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments:

    filter-name -wwidth -llength

    Where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question.

Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section Installing the Text Filter. Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD.

However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.)

On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section Header Pages) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it.

If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter.

The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require.

11.4.1.6. lpf: a Text Filter

The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter.

lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf.

In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see Accounting for Printer Usage.

11.4.2. Header Pages

If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil.

Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.)

The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see Header Pages on PostScript Printers.

11.4.2.1. Enabling Header Pages

In the Simple Printer Setup section, we turned off header pages by specifying sh (meaning ``suppress header'') in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability.

Sounds too easy, right?

You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof

printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2
exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf

Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See the Output Filters section for more information.

Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host orchid
#
teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\
        :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\
        :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof:

Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see the Header Page Options section for more lpr(1) options.

Note: LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap.

11.4.2.2. Controlling Header Pages

By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose):

      k                   ll       ll
      k                    l        l
      k                    l        l
      k   k     eeee       l        l     y    y
      k  k     e    e      l        l     y    y
      k k      eeeeee      l        l     y    y
      kk k     e           l        l     y    y
      k   k    e    e      l        l     y   yy
      k    k    eeee      lll      lll     yyy y
                                               y
                                          y    y
                                           yyyy


                                   ll
                          t         l        i
                          t         l
       oooo    u    u   ttttt       l       ii     n nnn     eeee
      o    o   u    u     t         l        i     nn   n   e    e
      o    o   u    u     t         l        i     n    n   eeeeee
      o    o   u    u     t         l        i     n    n   e
      o    o   u   uu     t  t      l        i     n    n   e    e
       oooo     uuu u      tt      lll      iii    n    n    eeee









      r rrr     oooo     ssss     eeee
      rr   r   o    o   s    s   e    e
      r        o    o    ss      eeeeee
      r        o    o      ss    e
      r        o    o   s    s   e    e
      r         oooo     ssss     eeee







                                              Job:  outline
                                              Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995

LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap).

If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this:

rose:kelly  Job: outline  Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995

Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap.

11.4.2.3. Accounting for Header Pages

Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge.

Why?

Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just ``add one page'' to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it.

It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the -h option to any of the filters.

So, what are your options?

You can:

  • Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free.

  • Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPRng. Section Alternatives to the Standard Spooler tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD.

  • Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free.

11.4.2.4. Header Pages on PostScript Printers

As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless--or mostly so.

One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h.

Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header
#

#
#  These are PostScript units (72 to the inch).  Modify for A4 or
#  whatever size paper you are using:
#
page_width=612
page_height=792
border=72

#
#  Check arguments
#
if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then
    echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2
    exit 1
fi

#
#  Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below.
#
user=$1
host=$2
job=$3
date=`date`

#
#  Send the PostScript code to stdout.
#
exec cat <<EOF
%!PS

%
%  Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow
%
save

%
%  Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper.
%
$border $border moveto
$page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto
0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto
currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen
$border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath
0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray

%
%  Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent
%
/Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont
$page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto
($user) show

%
%  Now show the boring particulars
%
/Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont
/y 200 def
[ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] {
200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def }
forall

/Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont
/y 200 def
[ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] {
        270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def
} forall

%
% That is it
%
restore
showpage
EOF

Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf
#
#  Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d
#
                
orig_args="$@"

fail() {
    echo "$@" 1>&2
    exit 2
}

while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do
    case $option in
        x|y)  ;; # Ignore
        n)    login=$OPTARG ;;
        h)    host=$OPTARG ;;
        *)    echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2
              exit 2
              ;;
    esac
done

[ "$login" ] || fail "No login name"
[ "$host" ] || fail "No host name"

( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File"
  /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args

Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section How Filters Work).

As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly simple, disables the ``suppress header page'' option (the -h option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job.

To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section Accounting for Header Pages: write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer.

If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages.

11.4.3. Networked Printing

FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things:

  • Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts tells how to do this.

  • Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows:

    • It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts to set up such a printer.

    • It might support a data stream network connection. In this case, you ``attach'' the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces gives some suggestions on installing such printers.

11.4.3.1. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts

The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol.

To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in the Simple Printer Setup section. Do any advanced setup in Advanced Printer Setup that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the local host has authorization to use the LPD service in the remote host (see Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers).

If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface.

Tip: If you are using a Hewlett Packard Laserjet then the printer name text will automatically perform the LF to CRLF conversion for you, so you will not require the hpif script.

Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following:

  1. Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host.

  2. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:).

  3. Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host.

  4. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability.

  5. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability.

That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file.

Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section Enabling Header Pages). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose
#

#
#  teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid:
#
teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\
        :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\
        :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp:

#
#  rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose:
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:

#
#  bamboo is connected to rose as well:
#
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:

Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid:

# mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo
# chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo
# chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo

Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed

% lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi
the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose.

11.4.3.2. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces

Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts.

The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port.

To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.).

#!/usr/bin/perl
#
#  netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network
#  Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint
#
$#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>";

$printer_host = $ARGV[0];
$printer_port = $ARGV[1];

require 'sys/socket.ph';

($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp');
($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address)
    = gethostbyname($printer_host);

$sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address);

socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol)
    || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!";
connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!";
while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; }
exit 0;

We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer:

#!/bin/sh
#
#  diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening
#  on port 5100.   Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net
#
exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100

11.4.4. Restricting Printer Usage

This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get.

11.4.4.1. Restricting Multiple Copies

The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you.

If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the -# option to lpr(1) by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the -# option, they will see:

lpr: multiple copies are not allowed

Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host.

Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo is a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
        :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:

Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak):

#
#  /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local
#  printer teak or remote printer bamboo
teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\
        :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\
        :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp:

rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:

By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running lpr(1) multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this:

% lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign

There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore.

11.4.4.2. Restricting Access to Printers

You can control who can print to what printers by using the UNIX group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability.

Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with ``lpr: Not a member of the restricted group'' if they try to print to the controlled printer.

As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts).

For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
        :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:

Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not.

Note: There can be only one restricted group per printer.

11.4.4.3. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted

If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users.

LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size; however, if no mx capability is specified, then a default limit of 1000 blocks will be used.

Note: The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size.

LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate.

Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer:

#
#  /etc/printcap for host rose
#

#
#  No limit on job size:
#
rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:

#
#  Limit of five megabytes:
#
bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
        :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:

Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts for more information on remote printing.

There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers.

11.4.4.4. Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers

The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts:

Host restrictions

You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request.

The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the ruserok(3) protocol, and affects programs like rsh(1) and rcp(1), so be careful.

For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose:

orchid
violet
madrigal.fishbaum.de

This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, the job will be refused.

Size restrictions

You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted.

This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file.

For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry:

bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\
        :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:mx#5000:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\
        :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf:

The spooling directory is given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs:

# echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bamboo/minfree
User restrictions

You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job.

This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your computer resources, you can give them ``token'' accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false.

11.4.5. Accounting for Printer Usage

So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs--printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts?

Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage.

To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section Filters.

Generally, there are two ways to do accounting:

  • Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period.

  • Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their ``print quotas.'' But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas.

The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information.

11.4.5.1. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting

FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section lpf: a Text Filter, and pac(8), a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files.

As mentioned in the section on filters (Filters), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory.

LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this:

2.00 rose:andy
3.00 rose:kelly
3.00 orchid:mary
5.00 orchid:mary
2.00 orchid:zhang

You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. An easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct.

When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the pac(8) program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following:

  Login               pages/feet   runs    price
orchid:kelly                5.00    1   $  0.10
orchid:mary                31.00    3   $  0.62
orchid:zhang                9.00    1   $  0.18
rose:andy                   2.00    1   $  0.04
rose:kelly                177.00  104   $  3.54
rose:mary                  87.00   32   $  1.74
rose:root                  26.00   12   $  0.52

total                     337.00  154   $  6.74

These are the arguments pac(8) expects:

-Pprinter

Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap.

-c

Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name.

-m

Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users.

-pprice

Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number.

-r

Reverse the sort order.

-s

Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file.

name ...

Print accounting information for the given user names only.

In the default summary that pac(8) produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary:

  Login               pages/feet   runs    price
andy                        2.00    1   $  0.04
kelly                     182.00  105   $  3.64
mary                      118.00   35   $  2.36
root                       26.00   12   $  0.52
zhang                       9.00    1   $  0.18

total                     337.00  154   $  6.74

To compute the dollar amount due, pac(8) uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run pac(8) with the -p option. The units for the -p option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example,

# pac -p1.50
makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option.

Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run pac(8) again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file.

11.4.5.2. How Can You Count Pages Printed?

In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting.

For plain text jobs, the problem is not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines.

The text filter lpf (introduced in lpf: a Text Filter) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code.

How do you handle other file formats, though?

Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs.

But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode--and the user would still get charged.

So, what can you do?

There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required.

Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free.

11.5. Using Printers

This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands:

lpr(1)

Print jobs

lpq(1)

Check printer queues

lprm(1)

Remove jobs from a printer's queue

There is also an administrative command, lpc(8), described in the section Administering the LPD Spooler, used to control printers and their queues.

All three of the commands lpr(1), lprm(1), and lpq(1) accept an option -P printer-name to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the -P option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp.

Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable.

11.5.1. Printing Jobs

To print files, type:

% lpr filename ...

This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, lpr(1) reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files:

% lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv

To select a specific printer, type:

% lpr -P printer-name filename ...

This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan:

% ls -l | lpr -P rattan

Because no files were listed for the lpr(1) command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command.

The lpr(1) command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section Printing Options.

11.5.2. Checking Jobs

When you print with lpr(1), the data you wish to print is put together in a package called a ``print job'', which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order.

To display the queue for the default printer, type lpq(1). For a specific printer, use the -P option. For example, the command

% lpq -P bamboo
shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command:

bamboo is ready and printing
Rank   Owner    Job  Files                              Total Size
active kelly    9    /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv   88 bytes
2nd    kelly    10   (standard input)                   1635 bytes
3rd    mary     11   ...                                78519 bytes

This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned ``job number'' 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section Removing Jobs for details.

Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the lpr(1) command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active under the ``Rank'' column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the lpr(1) command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the file she is trying to print is too long to fit, so the lpq(1) command just shows three dots.

The very first line of the output from lpq(1) is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing).

The lpq(1) command also support a -l option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l:

waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?)
kelly: 1st               [job 009rose]
       /etc/host.conf                    73 bytes
       /etc/hosts.equiv                  15 bytes

kelly: 2nd               [job 010rose]
       (standard input)                  1635 bytes

mary: 3rd                                [job 011rose]
      /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes

11.5.3. Removing Jobs

If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the lprm(1) command. Often, you can even use lprm(1) to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed.

To remove a job from the default printer, first use lpq(1) to find the job number. Then type:

% lprm job-number

To remove the job from a specific printer, add the -P option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo:

% lprm -P bamboo 10

The lprm(1) command has a few shortcuts:

lprm -

Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you.

lprm user

Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs.

lprm

With no job number, user name, or - appearing on the command line, lprm(1) removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job.

Just use the -P option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan:

% lprm -P rattan -

Note: If you are working in a networked environment, lprm(1) will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this:

% lpr -P rattan myfile
% rlogin orchid
% lpq -P rattan
Rank   Owner      Job  Files                          Total Size
active seeyan     12    ...                           49123 bytes
2nd    kelly      13   myfile                         12 bytes
% lprm -P rattan 13
rose: Permission denied
% logout
% lprm -P rattan 13
dfA013rose dequeued
cfA013rose dequeued

11.5.4. Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options

The lpr(1) command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options.

11.5.4.1. Formatting and Conversion Options

The following lpr(1) options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the pr(1) utility.

For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo:

% lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi

These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job.

Note: All of these options except -p and -T require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the -d option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section Conversion Filters gives details.

-c

Print cifplot files.

-d

Print DVI files.

-f

Print FORTRAN text files.

-g

Print plot data.

-i number

Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters.

Note: Do not put any space between the -i and the number.

-l

Print literal text data, including control characters.

-n

Print ditroff (device independent troff) data.

-p

Format plain text with pr(1) before printing. See pr(1) for more information.

-T title

Use title on the pr(1) header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the -p option.

-t

Print troff data.

-v

Print raster data.

Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the ls(1) manual page on the default printer:

% zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t

The zcat(1) command uncompresses the source of the ls(1) manual page and passes it to the troff(1) command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to lpr(1), which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the -t option to lpr(1), the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job.

11.5.4.2. Job Handling Options

The following options to lpr(1) tell LPD to handle the job specially:

-# copies

Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section Restricting Multiple Copies.

This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer:

% lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h
-m

Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was.

-s

Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead.

If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory.

There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed.

Note: If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the -s option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though.

-r

Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the -s option. Be careful with this option!

11.5.4.3. Header Page Options

These options to lpr(1) adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section Header Pages for information about setting up header pages.

-C text

Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted.

-J text

Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input.

-h

Do not print any header page.

Note: At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See Header Pages for details.

11.5.5. Administering Printers

As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the lpc(8) command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With lpc(8), you can

  • Start and stop the printers

  • Enable and disable their queues

  • Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue.

First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared.

If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty.

In general, you have to have root privileges to use the lpc(8) command. Ordinary users can use the lpc(8) command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only.

Here is a summary of the lpc(8) commands. Most of the commands take a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap.

abort printer-name

Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue is enabled.

clean printer-name

Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them.

disable printer-name

Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer is running, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue.

This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command.

down printer-name message

Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with lpq(1) or status with lpc status.

enable printer-name

Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started.

help command-name

Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available.

restart printer-name

Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start.

start printer-name

Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue.

stop printer-name

Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue.

topq printer-name job-or-username

Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name.

up printer-name

Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable.

lpc(8) accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, lpc(8) enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file.

11.6. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler

If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: ``What other spooling systems are out there (and work with FreeBSD)?''

LPRng

LPRng, which purportedly means ``LPR: the Next Generation'' is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is http://www.lprng.org/.

11.7. Troubleshooting

After performing the simple test with lptest(1), you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout:

It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet.

The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear.

If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job.

The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer:

#!/bin/sh
#
# if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd
# Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple
#
# Simply copies stdin to stdout.  Ignores all filter arguments.
# Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job.

/bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0
exit 2
It produced the ``staircase effect.''

You got the following on paper:

!"#$%&'()*+,-./01234
                "#$%&'()*+,-./012345
                                 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456

You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new line. UNIX style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2®, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines.

When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper.

Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do:

Printer received CR Printer prints CR
Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF

Here are some ways to achieve this:

  • Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this.

    Note: If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below.

  • Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, use the ms# capability and set the onlcr mode in the /etc/printcap file for the printer.

  • Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job.

    Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers.

    #!/bin/sh
#
# hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers
# Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif
#
# Simply copies stdin to stdout.  Ignores all filter arguments.
# Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF.  Ejects the page when done.

printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0
exit 2

    Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter:

    #
#  /etc/printcap for host orchid
#
teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:
It overprinted each line.

The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line.

This problem is the ``opposite'' of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line.

Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters:

Printer receives Printer prints
CR CR
LF CR + LF
The printer lost characters.

While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters.

The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line (this problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports). There are two ways to overcome the problem:

  • If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the ixon mode in the ms# capability.

  • If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the crtscts mode in the ms# capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control.

It printed garbage.

The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text.

This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity setting in the ms# capability; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file.

Nothing happened.

If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability:

rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\
        :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\
        :lp=/dev/lpt0:\
        :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\
        :lf=/var/log/rattan.log

Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem.

If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default.

Chapter 12. Storage

12.1. Synopsis

This chapter covers the use of disks in FreeBSD. This includes memory-backed disks, network-attached disks, and standard SCSI/IDE storage devices.

After reading this chapter, you will know:

  • The terminology FreeBSD uses to describe the organization of data on a physical disk (partitions and slices).

  • How to add additional hard disks to your system.

  • How to setup virtual file systems, such as memory disks.

  • How to use quotas to limit disk space usage.

  • How to encrypt disks to secure them against attackers.

  • How to create and burn CDs and DVDs on FreeBSD.

  • The various storage media options for backups.

  • How to use backup programs available under FreeBSD.

  • How to backup to floppy disks.

  • What snapshots are and how to use them efficiently.

12.2. Device Names

The following is a list of physical storage devices supported in FreeBSD, and the device names associated with them.

Table 12-1. Physical Disk Naming Conventions

Drive type Drive device name
IDE hard drives ad
IDE CDROM drives acd
SCSI hard drives and USB Mass storage devices da
SCSI CDROM drives cd
Assorted non-standard CDROM drives mcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM, scd for Sony CD-ROM, matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM [a]
Floppy drives fd
SCSI tape drives sa
IDE tape drives ast
Flash drives fla for DiskOnChip® Flash device
RAID drives aacd for Adaptec® AdvancedRAID, mlxd and mlyd for Mylex®, amrd for AMI MegaRAID®, idad for Compaq Smart RAID, twed for 3ware® RAID.
Notes:
a. The matcd(4) driver has been removed in FreeBSD 4.X branch since October 5th, 2002 and does not exist in FreeBSD 5.0 and 5.1 releases. However this driver is back in the FreeBSD 5.X branch since June 16th, 2003.

12.3. Adding Disks

Originally contributed by David O'Brien.

Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due to the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document.

Login as user root. After you have installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be da1 and we want to mount it on /1 (if you are adding an IDE drive, the device name will be wd1 in pre-4.0 systems, or ad1 in most 4.X systems).

Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live within one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions slices so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system.

In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/da1e.

12.3.1. Using sysinstall(8)

  1. Navigating Sysinstall

    You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user root or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the Configure menu. Within the FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the Fdisk option.

  2. fdisk Partition Editor

    Once inside fdisk, we can type A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to ``remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems'', answer YES. Write the changes to the disk using W. Now exit the FDISK editor by typing q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose None.

  3. Disk Label Editor

    Next, you need to exit sysinstall and start it again. Follow the directions above, although this time choose the Label option. This will enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an a partition. The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use.

    sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. Within the Label editor, create a single file system by typing C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and type in a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify is not important.

    You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by typing W. Ignore any errors from sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and sysinstall completely.

  4. Finish

    The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk.

12.3.2. Using Command Line Utilities

12.3.2.1. Using Slices

This setup will allow your disk to work correctly with other operating systems that might be installed on your computer and will not confuse other operating systems' fdisk utilities. It is recommended to use this method for new disk installs. Only use dedicated mode if you have a good reason to do so!

# dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1
# fdisk -BI da1 #Initialize your new disk
# disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto #Label it.
# disklabel -e da1s1 # Edit the disklabel just created and add any partitions.
# mkdir -p /1
# newfs /dev/da1s1e # Repeat this for every partition you created.
# mount /dev/da1s1e /1 # Mount the partition(s)
# vi /etc/fstab # Add the appropriate entry/entries to your /etc/fstab.

If you have an IDE disk, substitute ad for da. On pre-4.X systems use wd.

12.3.2.2. Dedicated

If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will ``appropriate'' any partition it finds which it does not understand.

# dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1
# disklabel -Brw da1 auto
# disklabel -e da1               # create the `e' partition
# newfs -d0 /dev/da1e
# mkdir -p /1
# vi /etc/fstab               # add an entry for /dev/da1e
# mount /1

An alternate method is:

# dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 count=2
# disklabel /dev/da1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin
# newfs /dev/da1e
# mkdir -p /1
# vi /etc/fstab                   # add an entry for /dev/da1e
# mount /1

Note: Since FreeBSD 5.1-RELEASE, the bsdlabel(8) utility replaces the old disklabel(8) program. With bsdlabel(8) a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the examples above the option -r should be removed with bsdlabel(8). For more information, please refer to the bsdlabel(8) manual page.

12.4. RAID

12.4.1. Software RAID

12.4.1.1. Concatenated Disk Driver (CCD) Configuration

Original work by Christopher Shumway. Revised by Jim Brown.

When choosing a mass storage solution the most important factors to consider are speed, reliability, and cost. It is rare to have all three in balance; normally a fast, reliable mass storage device is expensive, and to cut back on cost either speed or reliability must be sacrificed.

In designing the system described below, cost was chosen as the most important factor, followed by speed, then reliability. Data transfer speed for this system is ultimately constrained by the network. And while reliability is very important, the CCD drive described below serves online data that is already fully backed up on CD-R's and can easily be replaced.

Defining your own requirements is the first step in choosing a mass storage solution. If your requirements prefer speed or reliability over cost, your solution will differ from the system described in this section.

12.4.1.1.1. Installing the Hardware

In addition to the IDE system disk, three Western Digital 30GB, 5400 RPM IDE disks form the core of the CCD disk described below providing approximately 90GB of online storage. Ideally, each IDE disk would have its own IDE controller and cable, but to minimize cost, additional IDE controllers were not used. Instead the disks were configured with jumpers so that each IDE controller has one master, and one slave.

Upon reboot, the system BIOS was configured to automatically detect the disks attached. More importantly, FreeBSD detected them on reboot:

ad0: 19574MB <WDC WD205BA> [39770/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33
ad1: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata0-slave UDMA33
ad2: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-master UDMA33
ad3: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-slave UDMA33

Note: If FreeBSD does not detect all the disks, ensure that you have jumpered them correctly. Most IDE drives also have a ``Cable Select'' jumper. This is not the jumper for the master/slave relationship. Consult the drive documentation for help in identifying the correct jumper.

Next, consider how to attach them as part of the file system. You should research both vinum(8) (Chapter 13) and ccd(4). In this particular configuration, ccd(4) was chosen.

12.4.1.1.2. Setting Up the CCD

The driver ccd(4) allows you to take several identical disks and concatenate them into one logical file system. In order to use ccd(4), you need a kernel with ccd(4) support built in. Add this line to your kernel configuration file, rebuild, and reinstall the kernel:

pseudo-device   ccd     4

On 5.X systems, you have to use instead the following line:

device   ccd

Note: In FreeBSD 5.X, it is not necessary to specify a number of ccd(4) devices, as the ccd(4) device driver is now self-cloning -- new device instances will automatically be created on demand.

The ccd(4) support can also be loaded as a kernel loadable module in FreeBSD 3.0 or later.

To set up ccd(4), you must first use disklabel(8) to label the disks:

disklabel -r -w ad1 auto
disklabel -r -w ad2 auto
disklabel -r -w ad3 auto

This creates a disklabel for ad1c, ad2c and ad3c that spans the entire disk.

Note: Since FreeBSD 5.1-RELEASE, the bsdlabel(8) utility replaces the old disklabel(8) program. With bsdlabel(8) a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the examples above the option -r should be removed. For more information, please refer to the bsdlabel(8) manual page.

The next step is to change the disk label type. You can use disklabel(8) to edit the disks:

disklabel -e ad1
disklabel -e ad2
disklabel -e ad3

This opens up the current disk label on each disk with the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, typically vi(1).

An unmodified disk label will look something like this:

8 partitions:
#        size   offset    fstype   [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
  c: 60074784        0    unused        0     0     0   # (Cyl.    0 - 59597)

Add a new e partition for ccd(4) to use. This can usually be copied from the c partition, but the fstype must be 4.2BSD. The disk label should now look something like this:

8 partitions:
#        size   offset    fstype   [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
  c: 60074784        0    unused        0     0     0   # (Cyl.    0 - 59597)
  e: 60074784        0    4.2BSD        0     0     0   # (Cyl.    0 - 59597)
12.4.1.1.3. Building the File System

The device node for ccd0c may not exist yet, so to create it, perform the following commands:

cd /dev
sh MAKEDEV ccd0

Note: In FreeBSD 5.0, devfs(5) will automatically manage device nodes in /dev, so use of MAKEDEV is not necessary.

Now that you have all of the disks labeled, you must build the ccd(4). To do that, use ccdconfig(8), with options similar to the following:

ccdconfig ccd0(1) 32(2) 0(3) /dev/ad1e(4) /dev/ad2e /dev/ad3e

The use and meaning of each option is shown below:

(1)
The first argument is the device to configure, in this case, /dev/ccd0c. The /dev/ portion is optional.
(2)
The interleave for the file system. The interleave defines the size of a stripe in disk blocks, each normally 512 bytes. So, an interleave of 32 would be 16,384 bytes.
(3)
Flags for ccdconfig(8). If you want to enable drive mirroring, you can specify a flag here. This configuration does not provide mirroring for ccd(4), so it is set at 0 (zero).
(4)
The final arguments to ccdconfig(8) are the devices to place into the array. Use the complete pathname for each device.

After running ccdconfig(8) the ccd(4) is configured. A file system can be installed. Refer to newfs(8) for options, or simply run:

newfs /dev/ccd0c
12.4.1.1.4. Making it All Automatic

Generally, you will want to mount the ccd(4) upon each reboot. To do this, you must configure it first. Write out your current configuration to /etc/ccd.conf using the following command:

ccdconfig -g > /etc/ccd.conf

During reboot, the script /etc/rc runs ccdconfig -C if /etc/ccd.conf exists. This automatically configures the ccd(4) so it can be mounted.

Note: If you are booting into single user mode, before you can mount(8) the ccd(4), you need to issue the following command to configure the array:

ccdconfig -C

To automatically mount the ccd(4), place an entry for the ccd(4) in /etc/fstab so it will be mounted at boot time:

/dev/ccd0c              /media       ufs     rw      2       2

12.4.1.2. The Vinum Volume Manager

The Vinum Volume Manager is a block device driver which implements virtual disk drives. It isolates disk hardware from the block device interface and maps data in ways which result in an increase in flexibility, performance and reliability compared to the traditional slice view of disk storage. vinum(8) implements the RAID-0, RAID-1 and RAID-5 models, both individually and in combination.

See Chapter 13 for more information about vinum(8).

12.4.2. Hardware RAID

FreeBSD also supports a variety of hardware RAID controllers. These devices control a RAID subsystem without the need for FreeBSD specific software to manage the array.

Using an on-card BIOS, the card controls most of the disk operations itself. The following is a brief setup description using a Promise IDE RAID controller. When this card is installed and the system is started up, it displays a prompt requesting information. Follow the instructions to enter the card's setup screen. From here, you have the ability to combine all the attached drives. After doing so, the disk(s) will look like a single drive to FreeBSD. Other RAID levels can be set up accordingly.

12.4.3. Rebuilding ATA RAID1 Arrays

FreeBSD allows you to hot-replace a failed disk in an array. This requires that you catch it before you reboot.

You will probably see something like the following in /var/log/messages or in the dmesg(8) output:

ad6 on monster1 suffered a hard error.
ad6: READ command timeout tag=0 serv=0 - resetting
ad6: trying fallback to PIO mode
ata3: resetting devices .. done
ad6: hard error reading fsbn 1116119 of 0-7 (ad6 bn 1116119; cn 1107 tn 4 sn 11) status=59 error=40
ar0: WARNING - mirror lost

Using atacontrol(8), check for further information:

# atacontrol list
ATA channel 0:
    Master:      no device present
    Slave:   acd0 <HL-DT-ST CD-ROM GCR-8520B/1.00> ATA/ATAPI rev 0

ATA channel 1:
    Master:      no device present
    Slave:       no device present

ATA channel 2:
    Master:  ad4 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5
    Slave:       no device present

ATA channel 3:
    Master:  ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5
    Slave:       no device present

# atacontrol status ar0
ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: DEGRADED

  1. You will first need to detach the disk from the array so that you can safely remove it:

    # atacontrol detach 3

  2. Replace the disk.

  3. Reattach the disk as a spare:

    # atacontrol attach 3
Master:  ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5
Slave:   no device present

  4. Rebuild the array:

    # atacontrol rebuild ar0

  5. The rebuild command hangs until complete. However, it is possible to open another terminal (using Alt+Fn) and check on the progress by issuing the following command:

    # dmesg | tail -10
[output removed]
ad6: removed from configuration
ad6: deleted from ar0 disk1
ad6: inserted into ar0 disk1 as spare

# atacontrol status ar0
ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: REBUILDING 0% completed

  6. Wait until this operation completes.

12.5. Creating and Using Optical Media (CDs & DVDs)

Contributed by Mike Meyer.

12.5.1. Introduction

CDs have a number of features that differentiate them from conventional disks. Initially, they were not writable by the user. They are designed so that they can be read continuously without delays to move the head between tracks. They are also much easier to transport between systems than similarly sized media were at the time.

CDs do have tracks, but this refers to a section of data to be read continuously and not a physical property of the disk. To produce a CD on FreeBSD, you prepare the data files that are going to make up the tracks on the CD, then write the tracks to the CD.

The ISO 9660 file system was designed to deal with these differences. It unfortunately codifies file system limits that were common then. Fortunately, it provides an extension mechanism that allows properly written CDs to exceed those limits while still working with systems that do not support those extensions.

The sysutils/mkisofs program is used to produce a data file containing an ISO 9660 file system. It has options that support various extensions, and is described below. You can install it with the sysutils/mkisofs port.

Which tool to use to burn the CD depends on whether your CD burner is ATAPI or something else. ATAPI CD burners use the burncd program that is part of the base system. SCSI and USB CD burners should use cdrecord from the sysutils/cdrtools port.

burncd has a limited number of supported drives. To find out if a drive is supported, see the CD-R/RW supported drives list.

Note: If you run FreeBSD 5.X, FreeBSD 4.8-RELEASE version or higher, it will be possible to use cdrecord and other tools for SCSI drives on an ATAPI hardware with the ATAPI/CAM module.

12.5.2. mkisofs

sysutils/mkisofs produces an ISO 9660 file system that is an image of a directory tree in the UNIX file system name space. The simplest usage is:

# mkisofs -o imagefile.iso /path/to/tree

This command will create an imagefile.iso containing an ISO 9660 file system that is a copy of the tree at /path/to/tree. In the process, it will map the file names to names that fit the limitations of the standard ISO 9660 file system, and will exclude files that have names uncharacteristic of ISO file systems.

A number of options are available to overcome those restrictions. In particular, -R enables the Rock Ridge extensions common to UNIX systems, -J enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems, and -hfs can be used to create HFS file systems used by Mac OS.

For CDs that are going to be used only on FreeBSD systems, -U can be used to disable all filename restrictions. When used with -R, it produces a file system image that is identical to the FreeBSD tree you started from, though it may violate the ISO 9660 standard in a number of ways.

The last option of general use is -b. This is used to specify the location of the boot image for use in producing an ``El Torito'' bootable CD. This option takes an argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being written to the CD. So, given that /tmp/myboot holds a bootable FreeBSD system with the boot image in /tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot, you could produce the image of an ISO 9660 file system in /tmp/bootable.iso like so:

# mkisofs -U -R -b boot/cdboot -o /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot

Having done that, if you have vn (FreeBSD 4.X), or md (FreeBSD 5.X) configured in your kernel, you can mount the file system with:

# vnconfig -e vn0c /tmp/bootable.iso
# mount -t cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt

for FreeBSD 4.X, and for FreeBSD 5.X:

# mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /tmp/bootable.iso -u 0
# mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt

At which point you can verify that /mnt and /tmp/myboot are identical.

There are many other options you can use with sysutils/mkisofs to fine-tune its behavior. In particular: modifications to an ISO 9660 layout and the creation of Joliet and HFS discs. See the mkisofs(8) manual page for details.

12.5.3. burncd

If you have an ATAPI CD burner, you can use the burncd command to burn an ISO image onto a CD. burncd is part of the base system, installed as /usr/sbin/burncd. Usage is very simple, as it has few options:

# burncd -f cddevice data imagefile.iso fixate

Will burn a copy of imagefile.iso on cddevice. The default device is /dev/acd0c. See burncd(8) for options to set the write speed, eject the CD after burning, and write audio data.

12.5.4. cdrecord

If you do not have an ATAPI CD burner, you will have to use cdrecord to burn your CDs. cdrecord is not part of the base system; you must install it from either the port at sysutils/cdrtools or the appropriate package. Changes to the base system can cause binary versions of this program to fail, possibly resulting in a ``coaster''. You should therefore either upgrade the port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a new version becomes available.

While cdrecord has many options, basic usage is even simpler than burncd. Burning an ISO 9660 image is done with:

# cdrecord dev=device imagefile.iso

The tricky part of using cdrecord is finding the dev to use. To find the proper setting, use the -scanbus flag of cdrecord, which might produce results like this:

# cdrecord -scanbus
Cdrecord 1.9 (i386-unknown-freebsd4.2) Copyright (C) 1995-2000 Jörg Schilling
Using libscg version 'schily-0.1'
scsibus0:
        0,0,0     0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW       ' '0004' Disk
        0,1,0     1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W        ' '5958' Disk
        0,2,0     2) *
        0,3,0     3) 'iomega  ' 'jaz 1GB         ' 'J.86' Removable Disk
        0,4,0     4) 'NEC     ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM
        0,5,0     5) *
        0,6,0     6) *
        0,7,0     7) *
scsibus1:
        1,0,0   100) *
        1,1,0   101) *
        1,2,0   102) *
        1,3,0   103) *
        1,4,0   104) *
        1,5,0   105) 'YAMAHA  ' 'CRW4260         ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM
        1,6,0   106) 'ARTEC   ' 'AM12S           ' '1.06' Scanner
        1,7,0   107) *

This lists the appropriate dev value for the devices on the list. Locate your CD burner, and use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for dev. In this case, the CRW device is 1,5,0, so the appropriate input would be dev=1,5,0. There are easier ways to specify this value; see cdrecord(1) for details. That is also the place to look for information on writing audio tracks, controlling the speed, and other things.

12.5.5. Duplicating Audio CDs

You can duplicate an audio CD by extracting the audio data from the CD to a series of files, and then writing these files to a blank CD. The process is slightly different for ATAPI and SCSI drives.

SCSI Drives

  1. Use cdda2wav to extract the audio.

    % cdda2wav -v255 -D2,0 -B -Owav

  2. Use cdrecord to write the .wav files.

    % cdrecord -v dev=2,0 -dao -useinfo  *.wav

    Make sure that 2.0 is set appropriately, as described in Section 12.5.4.

ATAPI Drives

  1. The ATAPI CD driver makes each track available as /dev/acddtnn, where d is the drive number, and nn is the track number written with two decimal digits, prefixed with zero as needed. So the first track on the first disk is /dev/acd0t01, the second is /dev/acd0t02, the third is /dev/acd0t03, and so on.

    Make sure the appropriate files exist in /dev.

    # cd /dev
# sh MAKEDEV acd0t99

    Note: In FreeBSD 5.0, devfs(5) will automatically create and manage entries in /dev for you, so it is not necessary to use MAKEDEV.

  2. Extract each track using dd(1). You must also use a specific block size when extracting the files.

    # dd if=/dev/acd0t01 of=track1.cdr bs=2352
# dd if=/dev/acd0t02 of=track2.cdr bs=2352
...

  3. Burn the extracted files to disk using burncd. You must specify that these are audio files, and that burncd should fixate the disk when finished.

    # burncd -f /dev/acd0c audio track1.cdr track2.cdr ... fixate

12.5.6. Duplicating Data CDs

You can copy a data CD to a image file that is functionally equivalent to the image file created with sysutils/mkisofs, and you can use it to duplicate any data CD. The example given here assumes that your CDROM device is acd0. Substitute your correct CDROM device. A c must be appended to the end of the device name to indicate the entire partition or, in the case of CDROMs, the entire disc.

# dd if=/dev/acd0c of=file.iso bs=2048

Now that you have an image, you can burn it to CD as described above.

12.5.7. Using Data CDs

Now that you have created a standard data CDROM, you probably want to mount it and read the data on it. By default, mount(8) assumes that a file system is of type ufs. If you try something like:

# mount /dev/cd0c /mnt

you will get a complaint about ``Incorrect super block'', and no mount. The CDROM is not a UFS file system, so attempts to mount it as such will fail. You just need to tell mount(8) that the file system is of type ISO9660, and everything will work. You do this by specifying the -t cd9660 option mount(8). For example, if you want to mount the CDROM device, /dev/cd0c, under /mnt, you would execute:

# mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mnt

Note that your device name (/dev/cd0c in this example) could be different, depending on the interface your CDROM uses. Also, the -t cd9660 option just executes mount_cd9660(8). The above example could be shortened to:

# mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mnt

You can generally use data CDROMs from any vendor in this way. Disks with certain ISO 9660 extensions might behave oddly, however. For example, Joliet disks store all filenames in two-byte Unicode characters. The FreeBSD kernel does not speak Unicode (yet!), so non-English characters show up as question marks. (If you are running FreeBSD 4.3 or later, the CD9660 driver includes hooks to load an appropriate Unicode conversion table on the fly. Modules for some of the common encodings are available via the sysutils/cd9660_unicode port.)

Occasionally, you might get ``Device not configured'' when trying to mount a CDROM. This usually means that the CDROM drive thinks that there is no disk in the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus. It can take a couple of seconds for a CDROM drive to realize that it has been fed, so be patient.

Sometimes, a SCSI CDROM may be missed because it didn't have enough time to answer the bus reset. If you have a SCSI CDROM please add the following option to your kernel configuration and rebuild your kernel.

options SCSI_DELAY=15000

This tells your SCSI bus to pause 15 seconds during boot, to give your CDROM drive every possible chance to answer the bus reset.

12.5.8. Burning Raw Data CDs

You can choose to burn a file directly to CD, without creating an ISO 9660 file system. Some people do this for backup purposes. This runs more quickly than burning a standard CD:

# burncd -f /dev/acd1c -s 12 data archive.tar.gz fixate

In order to retrieve the data burned to such a CD, you must read data from the raw device node:

# tar xzvf /dev/acd1c

You cannot mount this disk as you would a normal CDROM. Such a CDROM cannot be read under any operating system except FreeBSD. If you want to be able to mount the CD, or share data with another operating system, you must use sysutils/mkisofs as described above.

12.5.9. Using the ATAPI/CAM Driver

This driver allows ATAPI devices (CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD drives etc...) to be accessed through the SCSI subsystem, and so allows the use of applications like sysutils/cdrdao or cdrecord(1).

To use this driver, you will need to add the following lines to your kernel configuration file:

device atapicam
device scbus
device cd
device pass

You also need the following lines in your kernel configuration file:

device ata
device atapicd

Both of which should already be present.

Then rebuild, install your new kernel, and reboot your machine. During the boot process, your burner should show up, like so:

acd0: CD-RW <MATSHITA CD-RW/DVD-ROM UJDA740> at ata1-master PIO4
cd0 at ata1 bus 0 target 0 lun 0
cd0: <MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00> Removable CD-ROM SCSI-0 device
cd0: 16.000MB/s transfers
cd0: Attempt to query device size failed: NOT READY, Medium not present - tray closed

The drive could now be accessed via the /dev/cd0 device name, for example to mount a CD-ROM on /mnt, just type the following:

# mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mnt

As root, you can run the following command to get the SCSI address of the burner:

# camcontrol devlist
<MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00>   at scbus1 target 0 lun 0 (pass0,cd0)

So 1,0,0 will be the SCSI address to use with cdrecord(1) and other SCSI application.

For more information about ATAPI/CAM and SCSI system, refer to the atapicam(4) and cam(4) manual pages.

12.6. Creating and Using Floppy Disks

Original work by Julio Merino. Rewritten by Martin Karlsson.

Storing data on floppy disks is sometimes useful, for example when one does not have any other removable storage media or when one needs to transfer small amounts of data to another computer.

This section will explain how to use floppy disks in FreeBSD. It will primarily cover formatting and usage of 3.5inch DOS floppies, but the concepts are similar for other floppy disk formats.

12.6.1. Formatting Floppies

12.6.1.1. The Device

Floppy disks are accessed through entries in /dev, just like other devices. To access the raw floppy disk in 4.X and earlier releases, one uses /dev/fdN, where N stands for the drive number, usually 0, or /dev/fdNX, where X stands for a letter.

In 5.0 or newer releases, simply use /dev/fdN.

12.6.1.1.1. The Disk Size in 4.X and Earlier Releases

There are also /dev/fdN.size devices, where size is a floppy disk size in kilobytes. These entries are used at low-level format time to determine the disk size. 1440kB is the size that will be used in the following examples.

Sometimes the entries under /dev will have to be (re)created. To do that, issue:

# cd /dev && ./MAKEDEV "fd*"
12.6.1.1.2. The Disk Size in 5.0 and Newer Releases

In 5.0, devfs(5) will automatically manage device nodes in /dev, so use of MAKEDEV is not necessary.

The desired disk size is passed to fdformat(1) through the -f flag. Supported sizes are listed in fdcontrol(8), but be advised that 1440kB is what works best.

12.6.1.2. Formatting

A floppy disk needs to be low-level formated before it can be used. This is usually done by the vendor, but formatting is a good way to check media integrity. Although it is possible to force larger (or smaller) disk sizes, 1440kB is what most floppy disks are designed for.

To low-level format the floppy disk you need to use fdformat(1). This utility expects the device name as an argument.

Make note of any error messages, as these can help determine if the disk is good or bad.

12.6.1.2.1. Formatting in 4.X and Earlier Releases

Use the /dev/fdN.size devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy disk in your drive and issue:

# /usr/sbin/fdformat /dev/fd0.1440
12.6.1.2.2. Formatting in 5.0 and Newer Releases

Use the /dev/fdN devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy disk in your drive and issue:

# /usr/sbin/fdformat -f 1440 /dev/fd0

12.6.2. The Disk Label

After low-level formatting the disk, you will need to place a disk label on it. This disk label will be destroyed later, but it is needed by the system to determine the size of the disk and its geometry later.

The new disk label will take over the whole disk, and will contain all the proper information about the geometry of the floppy. The geometry values for the disk label are listed in /etc/disktab.

You can run now disklabel(8) like so:

# /sbin/disklabel -B -r -w /dev/fd0 fd1440

Note: Since FreeBSD 5.1-RELEASE, the bsdlabel(8) utility replaces the old disklabel(8) program. With bsdlabel(8) a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the example above the option -r should be removed. For more information, please refer to the bsdlabel(8) manual page.

12.6.3. The File System

Now the floppy is ready to be high-level formated. This will place a new file system on it, which will let FreeBSD read and write to the disk. After creating the new file system, the disk label is destroyed, so if you want to reformat the disk, you will have to recreate the disk label.

The floppy's file system can be either UFS or FAT. FAT is generally a better choice for floppies.

To put a new file system on the floppy, issue:

# /sbin/newfs_msdos /dev/fd0

The disk is now ready for use.

12.6.4. Using the Floppy

To use the floppy, mount it with mount_msdos(8) (in 4.X and earlier releases) or mount_msdosfs(8) (in 5.0 or newer releases). One can also use emulators/mtools from the ports collection.

12.7. Creating and Using Data Tapes

The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and DLT.

12.7.1. 4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage)

4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan.

Data throughput on these drives starts ~150 kB/s, peaking at ~500 kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB.

The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12 GB (or 24 GB compressed).

4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives.

Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups.

12.7.2. 8mm (Exabyte)

8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an Exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads.

Data throughput ranges from ~250 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB.

The Exabyte ``Mammoth'' model supports 12 GB on one tape (24 GB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as conventional tape drives.

Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other.

12.7.3. QIC

QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive ``serious'' backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). Mini-cartridges, which also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not available.

Data throughput ranges from ~150 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives.

Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives).

Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups.

12.7.4. XXX* Mini-Cartridge

12.7.5. DLT

DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to ``hook'' the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself.

Data throughput is approximately 1.5 MB/s, three times the throughput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10 GB to 20 GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50 GB to 9 TB of storage.

With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70 GB capacity.

Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape.

12.7.6. AIT

AIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50 GB (with compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries, communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the contents on screen, determine what files were backed up to which tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the tape.

Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a little out of the hobbyist market.

12.7.7. Using a New Tape for the First Time

The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to:

sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1
sa0(ncr1:4:0):  Logical unit is in process of becoming ready

The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions:

  • mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape.

  • Use the front panel button to eject the tape.

    Re-insert the tape and dump data to the tape.

    dump will report ``DUMP: End of tape detected'' and the console will show: ``HARDWARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96''.

    rewind the tape using: mt rewind.

    Subsequent tape operations are successful.

12.8. Backups to Floppies

12.8.1. Can I Use Floppies for Backing Up My Data?

Floppy disks are not really a suitable media for making backups as:

  • The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of time.

  • Backing up and restoring is very slow.

  • They have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since passed).

However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then floppy disks are better than no backup at all.

If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a reputable manufacturer.

12.8.2. So How Do I Backup My Data to Floppies?

The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use tar(1) with the -M (multi volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple floppies.

To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory use this (as root):

# tar Mcvf /dev/fd0 *

When the first floppy is full tar(1) will prompt you to insert the next volume (because tar(1) is media independent it refers to volumes; in this context it means floppy disk).

Prepare volume #2 for /dev/fd0 and hit return:

This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all the specified files have been archived.

12.8.3. Can I Compress My Backups?

Unfortunately, tar(1) will not allow the -z option to be used for multi-volume archives. You could, of course, gzip(1) all the files, tar(1) them to the floppies, then gunzip(1) the files again!

12.8.4. How Do I Restore My Backups?

To restore the entire archive use:

# tar Mxvf /dev/fd0

There are two ways that you can use to restore only specific files. First, you can start with the first floppy and use:

# tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 filename

The utility tar(1) will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it finds the required file.

Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the previous one then tar(1) will warn you that it cannot restore it, even if you have not asked it to!

12.9. Backup Basics

The three major backup programs are dump(8), tar(1), and cpio(1).

12.9.1. Dump and Restore

The traditional UNIX backup programs are dump and restore. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the file systems. dump backs up an entire file system on a device. It is unable to backup only part of a file system or a directory tree that spans more than one file system. dump does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the raw data blocks that comprise files and directories.

Note: If you use dump on your root directory, you would not back up /home, /usr or many other directories since these are typically mount points for other file systems or symbolic links into those file systems.

dump has quirks that remain from its early days in Version 6 of AT&T UNIX (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives.

It is also possible to backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer with rdump and rrestore. Both programs rely upon rcmd and ruserok to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must be listed in the .rhosts file on the remote computer. The arguments to rdump and rrestore must be suitable to use on the remote computer. When rdumping from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use:

# /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nsa8 /dev/da0a 2>&1

Beware: there are security implications to allowing .rhosts authentication. Evaluate your situation carefully.

It is also possible to use dump and restore in a more secure fashion over ssh.

Example 12-1. Using dump over ssh

# /sbin/dump -0uan -f - /usr | gzip -2 | ssh1 -c blowfish \
          targetuser@targetmachine.example.com dd of=/mybigfiles/dump-usr-l0.gz

12.9.2. tar

tar(1) also dates back to Version 6 of AT&T UNIX (circa 1975). tar operates in cooperation with the file system; tar writes files and directories to tape. tar does not support the full range of options that are available from cpio(1), but tar does not require the unusual command pipeline that cpio uses.

Most versions of tar do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of tar, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as rdump. To tar to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use:

# /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nsa8 . 2>&1

For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive.

# tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20b

If you are worried about the security of backing up over a network you should use the ssh command instead of rsh.

12.9.3. cpio

cpio(1) is the original UNIX file interchange tape program for magnetic media. cpio has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archive formats, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes cpio an excellent choice for installation media. cpio does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided through stdin.

cpio does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive.

# for f in directory_list; do
find $f >> backup.list
done
# cpio -v -o --format=newc < backup.list | ssh user@host "cat > backup_device"

Where directory_list is the list of directories you want to back up, user@host is the user/hostname combination that will be performing the backups, and backup_device is where the backups should be written to (e.g., /dev/nsa0).

12.9.4. pax

pax(1) is IEEE/POSIX's answer to tar and cpio. Over the years the various versions of tar and cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX created a new archive utility. pax attempts to read and write many of the various cpio and tar formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles cpio than tar.

12.9.5. Amanda

Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and a network connection to the Amanda server. A common problem at sites with a number of large disks is that the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a ``holding disk'' to backup several file systems at the same time. Amanda creates ``archive sets'': a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the file systems listed in Amanda's configuration file. The ``archive set'' also contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the file systems. Restoring a damaged file system requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups.

The configuration file provides fine control of backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default.

12.9.6. Do Nothing

``Do nothing'' is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it!

If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then ``Do nothing'' is the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, UNIX is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you.

``Do nothing'' is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that comprise the HTML or PostScript version of this Handbook. These document formats have been created from SGML input files. Creating backups of the HTML or PostScript files is not necessary. The SGML files are backed up regularly.

12.9.7. Which Backup Program Is Best?

dump(8) Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of UNIX file systems is dump. Elizabeth created file systems containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by doing a backup and restore of those file systems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. See torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs.

12.9.8. Emergency Restore Procedure

12.9.8.1. Before the Disaster

There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any disaster that may occur.

First, print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr), your file system table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each.

Second, determine that the boot and fix-it floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three.

Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which have a kernel that can mount all of your disks and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain: fdisk, disklabel, newfs, mount, and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use dump, the floppy must contain restore.

Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes.

Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/sa0, you might accidentally type tar cvf /dev/sa0 and over-write your backup tape).

For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance.

Example 12-2. A Script for Creating a Bootable Floppy

#!/bin/sh
#
# create a restore floppy
#
# format the floppy
#
PATH=/bin:/sbin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin

fdformat -q fd0
if [ $? -ne 0 ]
then
     echo "Bad floppy, please use a new one"
     exit 1
fi

# place boot blocks on the floppy
#
disklabel -w -B /dev/fd0c fd1440

#
# newfs the one and only partition
#
newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -c 40 -i 5120 -m 5 -o space /dev/fd0a

#
# mount the new floppy
#
mount /dev/fd0a /mnt

#
# create required directories
#
mkdir /mnt/dev
mkdir /mnt/bin
mkdir /mnt/sbin
mkdir /mnt/etc
mkdir /mnt/root
mkdir /mnt/mnt          # for the root partition
mkdir /mnt/tmp
mkdir /mnt/var

#
# populate the directories
#
if [ ! -x /sys/compile/MINI/kernel ]
then
     cat << EOM
The MINI kernel does not exist, please create one.
Here is an example config file:
#
# MINI -- A kernel to get FreeBSD onto a disk.
#
machine         "i386"
cpu             "I486_CPU"
ident           MINI
maxusers        5

options         INET                    # needed for _tcp _icmpstat _ipstat
                                        #            _udpstat _tcpstat _udb
options         FFS                     #Berkeley Fast File System
options         FAT_CURSOR              #block cursor in syscons or pccons
options         SCSI_DELAY=15           #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI device
options         NCONS=2                 #1 virtual consoles
options         USERCONFIG              #Allow user configuration with -c XXX

config          kernel  root on da0 swap on da0 and da1 dumps on da0

device          isa0
device          pci0

device          fdc0    at isa? port "IO_FD1" bio irq 6 drq 2 vector fdintr
device          fd0 at fdc0 drive 0

device          ncr0

device          scbus0

device          sc0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1 vector scintr
device          npx0    at isa? port "IO_NPX" irq 13 vector npxintr

device          da0
device          da1
device          da2

device          sa0

pseudo-device   loop            # required by INET
pseudo-device   gzip            # Exec gzipped a.out's
EOM
     exit 1
fi

cp -f /sys/compile/MINI/kernel /mnt

gzip -c -best /sbin/init > /mnt/sbin/init
gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck
gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount
gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt
gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore

gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh
gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync

cp /root/.profile /mnt/root

cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev
chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV

chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init
chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt
chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync
chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore

#
# create the devices nodes
#
cd /mnt/dev
./MAKEDEV std
./MAKEDEV da0
./MAKEDEV da1
./MAKEDEV da2
./MAKEDEV sa0
./MAKEDEV pty0
cd /

#
# create minimum file system table
#
cat > /mnt/etc/fstab <<EOM
/dev/fd0a    /    ufs    rw  1  1
EOM

#
# create minimum passwd file
#
cat > /mnt/etc/passwd <<EOM
root:*:0:0:Charlie &:/root:/bin/sh
EOM

cat > /mnt/etc/master.passwd <<EOM
root::0:0::0:0:Charlie &:/root:/bin/sh
EOM

chmod 600 /mnt/etc/master.passwd
chmod 644 /mnt/etc/passwd
/usr/sbin/pwd_mkdb -d/mnt/etc /mnt/etc/master.passwd

#
# umount the floppy and inform the user
#
/sbin/umount /mnt
echo "The floppy has been unmounted and is now ready."

12.9.8.2. After the Disaster

The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the software.

If the hardware has been damaged, the parts should be replaced before attempting to use the computer.

If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s at the boot: prompt). Skip the following paragraph.

If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or floppy. option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted. restore and the other programs that you need are located in /mnt2/stand.

Recover each file system separately.

Try to mount (e.g. mount /dev/da0a /mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the disklabel was damaged, use disklabel to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that you printed and saved. Use newfs to re-create the file systems. Re-mount the root partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw /mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data for this file system (e.g. restore vrf /dev/sa0). Unmount the file system (e.g. umount /mnt). Repeat for each file system that was damaged.

Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. Another hour spent now may save you from further distress later.

12.10. Network, Memory, and File-Backed File Systems

Reorganized and enhanced by Marc Fonvieille.

Aside from the disks you physically insert into your computer: floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth; other forms of disks are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual disks.

These include network file systems such as the Network File System and Coda, memory-based file systems and file-backed file systems.

According to the FreeBSD version you run, you will have to use different tools for creation and use of file-backed and memory-based file systems.

Note: The FreeBSD 4.X users will have to use MAKEDEV(8) to create the required devices. FreeBSD 5.0 and later use devfs(5) to allocate device nodes transparently for the user.

12.10.1. File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 4.X

The utility vnconfig(8) configures and enables vnode pseudo-disk devices. A vnode is a representation of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that vnconfig(8) uses files to create and operate a file system. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files.

To use vnconfig(8), you need vn(4) support in your kernel configuration file:

pseudo-device vn

To mount an existing file system image:

Example 12-3. Using vnconfig to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 4.X

# vnconfig vn0 diskimage
# mount /dev/vn0c /mnt

To create a new file system image with vnconfig(8):

Example 12-4. Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig

# dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
# vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage
# disklabel -r -w vn0 auto
# newfs vn0c
Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated
/dev/vn0c:     10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors
        5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g)
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
 32
# mount /dev/vn0c /mnt
# df /mnt
Filesystem  1K-blocks     Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/vn0c        4927        1     4532     0%    /mnt

12.10.2. File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 5.X

The utility mdconfig(8) is used to configure and enable memory disks, md(4), under FreeBSD 5.X. To use mdconfig(8), you have to load md(4) module or to add the support in your kernel configuration file:

device md

The mdconfig(8) command supports three kinds of memory backed virtual disks: memory disks allocated with malloc(9), memory disks using a file or swap space as backing. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files.

To mount an existing file system image:

Example 12-5. Using mdconfig to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 5.X

# mdconfig -a -t vnode -f diskimage -u 0
# mount /dev/md0c /mnt

To create a new file system image with mdconfig(8):

Example 12-6. Creating a New File-Backed Disk with mdconfig

# dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
# mdconfig -a -t vnode -f newimage -u 0
# disklabel -r -w md0 auto
# newfs md0c
/dev/md0c: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048
    using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes.
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
 32, 2624, 5216, 7808
# mount /dev/md0c /mnt
# df /mnt
Filesystem  1K-blocks     Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/md0c        4846        2     4458     0%    /mnt

If you do not specify the unit number with the -u option, mdconfig(8) will use the md(4) automatic allocation to select an unused device. The name of the allocated unit will be output on stdout like md4. For more details about mdconfig(8), please refer to the manual page.

Note: Since FreeBSD 5.1-RELEASE, the bsdlabel(8) utility replaces the old disklabel(8) program. With bsdlabel(8) a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the example above the option -r should be removed. For more information, please refer to the bsdlabel(8) manual page.

The utility mdconfig(8) is very useful, however it asks many command lines to create a file-backed file system. FreeBSD 5.0 also comes with a tool called mdmfs(8), this program configures a md(4) disk using mdconfig(8), puts a UFS file system on it using newfs(8), and mounts it using mount(8). For example, if you want to create and mount the same file system image as above, simply type the following:

# dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
# mdmfs -F newimage -s 5m md0 /mnt
# df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/md0        4846    2  4458     0%    /mnt

If you use the option md without unit number, mdmfs(8) will use md(4) auto-unit feature to automatically select an unused device. For more details about mdmfs(8), please refer to the manual page.

12.10.3. Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 4.X

The md(4) driver is a simple, efficient means to create memory file systems under FreeBSD 4.X. malloc(9) is used to allocate the memory.

Simply take a file system you have prepared with, for example, vnconfig(8), and:

Example 12-7. md Memory Disk under FreeBSD 4.X

# dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
# mount /dev/md0c /mnt
# df /mnt
Filesystem  1K-blocks     Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/md0c        4927        1     4532     0%    /mnt

For more details, please refer to md(4) manual page.

12.10.4. Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 5.X

The same tools are used for memory-based and file-backed file systems: mdconfig(8) or mdmfs(8). The storage for memory-based file system is allocated with malloc(9).

Example 12-8. Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with mdconfig

# mdconfig -a -t malloc -s 5m -u 1
# newfs -U md1
/dev/md1: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048
    using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes.
    with soft updates
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
 32, 2624, 5216, 7808
# mount /dev/md1 /mnt
# df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/md1        4846    2  4458     0%    /mnt

Example 12-9. Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with mdmfs

# mdmfs -M -s 5m md2 /mnt
# df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/md2        4846    2  4458     0%    /mnt

Instead of using a malloc(9) backed file system, it is possible to use swap, for that just replace malloc with swap in the command line of mdconfig(8). The mdmfs(8) utility by default (without -M) creates a swap-based disk. For more details, please refer to mdconfig(8) and mdmfs(8) manual pages.

12.10.5. Detaching a Memory Disk from the System

When a memory-based or file-based file system is not used, you should release all resources to the system. The first thing to do is to unmount the file system, then use mdconfig(8) to detach the disk from the system and release the resources.

For example to detach and free all resources used by /dev/md4:

# mdconfig -d -u 4

It is possible to list information about configured md(4) devices in using the command mdconfig -l.

For FreeBSD 4.X, vnconfig(8) is used to detach the device. For example to detach and free all resources used by /dev/vn4:

# vnconfig -u vn4

12.11. File System Snapshots

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

FreeBSD 5.0 offers a new feature in conjunction with Soft Updates: File system snapshots.

Snapshots allow a user to create images of specified file systems, and treat them as a file. Snapshot files must be created in the file system that the action is performed on, and a user may create no more than 20 snapshots per file system. Active snapshots are recorded in the superblock so they are persistent across unmount and remount operations along with system reboots. When a snapshot is no longer required, it can be removed with the standard rm(1) command. Snapshots may be removed in any order, however all the used space may not be acquired because another snapshot will possibly claim some of the released blocks.

During initial creation, the schg flag (see the chflags(1) manual page) is set to ensure that even root cannot write to the snapshot. The unlink(1) command makes an exception for snapshot files since it allows them to be removed with the schg flag set, so it is not necessary to clear the schg flag before removing a snapshot file.

Snapshots are created with the mount(8) command. To place a snapshot of /var in the file /var/snapshot/snap use the following command:

# mount -u -o snapshot /var/snapshot/snap /var

Once a snapshot has been created, they have several uses:

  • Some administrators will use a snapshot file for backup purposes, because the snapshot can be transfered to CDs or tape.

  • File integrity, fsck(8) may be ran on the snapshot. Assuming that the file system was clean when it was mounted, you should always get a clean (and unchanging) result. This is essentially what the background fsck(8) process does.

  • Run the dump(8) utility on the snapshot. A dump will be returned that is consistent with the file system and the timestamp of the snapshot. dump(8) can also take a snapshot, create a dump image and then remove the snapshot in one command using the -L flag.

  • mount(8) the snapshot as a frozen image of the file system. To mount(8) the snapshot /var/snapshot/snap run:

    # mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /var/snapshot/snap -u 4

    # mount -r /dev/md4 /mnt

You can now walk the hierarchy of your frozen /var file system mounted at /mnt. Everything will be in the same state it was during the snapshot creation time. The only exception is that any earlier snapshots will appear as zero length files. When the use of a snapshot has delimited, it can be unmounted with:

# umount /mnt

# mdconfig -d -u 4

For more information about softupdates and file system snapshots, including technical papers, you can visit Marshall Kirk McKusick's website at http://www.mckusick.com.

12.12. File System Quotas

Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user or members of a group may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user or group of users from consuming all of the available disk space.

12.12.1. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas

Before attempting to use disk quotas, it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file:

options QUOTA

The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to Chapter 9 for more information on kernel configuration.

Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the line:

enable_quotas="YES"

For finer control over your quota startup, there is an additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup, the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the quotacheck(8) program. The quotacheck(8) facility insures that the data in the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system. This is a very time consuming process that will significantly affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to skip this step, a variable in /etc/rc.conf is made available for the purpose:

check_quotas="NO"

If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set the following in your /etc/rc.conf:

check_quotas="YES"

Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems.

To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the userquota option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to enable quotas on. For example:

/dev/da1s2g   /home    ufs rw,userquota 1 2

Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the groupquota option instead of userquota. To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows:

/dev/da1s2g    /home    ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2

By default, the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See fstab(5) for more information. Even though the fstab(5) manual page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly.

At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files.

In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the quotacheck(8), quotaon(8), or quotaoff(8) commands manually. However, you may want to read their manual pages just to be familiar with their operation.

12.12.2. Setting Quota Limits

Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run:

# quota -v

You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on.

You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the edquota(8) command.

You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories: hard and soft limits.

A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches his hard limit he may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail.

Soft limits, on the other hand, can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than the grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset.

The following is an example of what you might see when you run the edquota(8) command. When the edquota(8) command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits.

# edquota -u test

Quotas for user test:
/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
        inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
/usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
        inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)

You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this user's block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change:

/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)

to:

 /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600)

The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor.

Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of UIDs. This can be done by use of the -p option on the edquota(8) command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for UIDs 10,000 through 19,999:

# edquota -p test 10000-19999

For more information see edquota(8) manual page.

12.12.3. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage

You can use either the quota(1) or the repquota(8) commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The quota(1) command can be used to check individual user or group quotas and disk usage. A user may only examine his own quota, and the quota of a group he is a member of. Only the super-user may view all user and group quotas. The repquota(8) command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled.

The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems.

Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002):
     Filesystem  blocks   quota   limit   grace   files   quota   limit   grace
           /usr      65*     50      75   5days       7      50      60
       /usr/var       0      50      75               0      50      60

On the /usr file system in the above example, this user is currently 15 blocks over the soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of the grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over his quota limit.

Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the quota(1) command, even if he has a quota limit assigned for that file system. The -v option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example.

12.12.4. Quotas over NFS

Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server. The rpc.rquotad(8) daemon makes quota information available to the quota(1) command on NFS clients, allowing users on those machines to see their quota statistics.

Enable rpc.rquotad in /etc/inetd.conf like so:

rquotad/1      dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad

Now restart inetd:

# kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`

12.13. Encrypting Disk Partitions

Contributed by Lucky Green.

FreeBSD offers excellent online protections against unauthorized data access. File permissions and Mandatory Access Control (MAC) (see Section 10.12) help prevent unauthorized third-parties from accessing data while the operating system is active and the computer is powered up. However, the permissions enforced by the operating system are irrelevant if an attacker has physical access to a computer and can simply move the computer's hard drive to another system to copy and analyze the sensitive data.

Regardless of how an attacker may have come into possession of a hard drive or powered-down computer, GEOM Based Disk Encryption (gbde) can protect the data on the computer's file systems against even highly-motivated attackers with significant resources. Unlike cumbersome encryption methods that encrypt only individual files, gbde transparently encrypts entire file systems. No cleartext ever touches the hard drive's platter.

12.13.1. Enabling gbde in the Kernel

  1. Become root

    Configuring gbde requires super-user privileges.

    % su -
Password:

  2. Verify the Operating System Version

    gbde(4) requires FreeBSD 5.0 or higher.

    # uname -r
5.0-RELEASE

  3. Add gbde(4) Support to the Kernel Configuration File

    Using your favorite text editor, add the following line to your kernel configuration file:

    options GEOM_BDE

    Configure, recompile, and install the FreeBSD kernel. This process is described in Chapter 9.

    Reboot into the new kernel.

12.13.2. Preparing the Encrypted Hard Drive

The following example assumes that you are adding a new hard drive to your system that will hold a single encrypted partition. This partition will be mounted as /private. gbde can also be used to encrypt /home and /var/mail, but this requires more complex instructions which exceed the scope of this introduction.

  1. Add the New Hard Drive

    Install the new drive to the system as explained in Section 12.3. For the purposes of this example, a new hard drive partition has been added as /dev/ad4s1c. The /dev/ad0s1* devices represent existing standard FreeBSD partitions on the example system.

    # ls /dev/ad*
/dev/ad0        /dev/ad0s1b     /dev/ad0s1e     /dev/ad4s1
/dev/ad0s1      /dev/ad0s1c     /dev/ad0s1f     /dev/ad4s1c
/dev/ad0s1a     /dev/ad0s1d     /dev/ad4

  2. Create a Directory to Hold gbde Lock Files

    # mkdir /etc/gbde

    The gbde lock file contains information that gbde requires to access encrypted partitions. Without access to the lock file, gbde will not be able to decrypt the data contained in the encrypted partition without significant manual intervention which is not supported by the software. Each encrypted partition uses a separate lock file.

  3. Initialize the gbde Partition

    A gbde partition must be initialized before it can be used. This initialization needs to be performed only once:

    # gbde init /dev/ad4s1c -i -L /etc/gbde/ad4s1c

    gbde(8) will open your editor, permitting you to set various configuration options in a template. For use with UFS1 or UFS2, set the sector_size to 2048:

    $FreeBSD: src/sbin/gbde/template.txt,v 1.1 2002/10/20 11:16:13 phk Exp $
#
# Sector size is the smallest unit of data which can be read or written.
# Making it too small decreases performance and decreases available space.
# Making it too large may prevent filesystems from working.  512 is the
# minimum and always safe.  For UFS, use the fragment size
#
sector_size     =       2048
[...]

    gbde(8) will ask you twice to type the passphrase that should be used to secure the data. The passphrase must be the same both times. gbde's ability to protect your data depends entirely on the quality of the passphrase that you choose. [9]

    The gbde init command creates a lock file for your gbde partition that in this example is stored as /etc/gbde/ad4s1c.

    Cautiongbde lock files must be backed up together with the contents of any encrypted partitions. While deleting a lock file alone cannot prevent a determined attacker from decrypting a gbde partition, without the lock file, the legitimate owner will be unable to access the data on the encrypted partition without a significant amount of work that is totally unsupported by gbde(8) and its designer.

  4. Attach the Encrypted Partition to the Kernel

    # gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c

    You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you selected during the initialization of the encrypted partition. The new encrypted device will show up in /dev as /dev/device_name.bde:

    # ls /dev/ad*
/dev/ad0        /dev/ad0s1b     /dev/ad0s1e     /dev/ad4s1
/dev/ad0s1      /dev/ad0s1c     /dev/ad0s1f     /dev/ad4s1c
/dev/ad0s1a     /dev/ad0s1d     /dev/ad4        /dev/ad4s1c.bde

  5. Create a File System on the Encrypted Device

    Once the encrypted device has been attached to the kernel, you can create a file system on the device. To create a file system on the encrypted device, use newfs(8). Since it is much faster to initialize a new UFS2 file system than it is to initialize the old UFS1 file system, using newfs(8) with the -O2 option is recommended.

    Note: The -O2 option is the default with FreeBSD 5.1-RELEASE and later.

    # newfs -U -O2 /dev/ad4s1c.bde

    Note: The newfs(8) command must be performed on an attached gbde partition which is identified by a *.bde extension to the device name.

  6. Mount the Encrypted Partition

    Create a mount point for the encrypted file system.

    # mkdir /private

    Mount the encrypted file system.

    # mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private

  7. Verify That the Encrypted File System is Available

    The encrypted file system should now be visible to df(1) and be available for use.

    % df -H
Filesystem        Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on
/dev/ad0s1a      1037M    72M   883M     8%    /
/devfs            1.0K   1.0K     0B   100%    /dev
/dev/ad0s1f       8.1G    55K   7.5G     0%    /home
/dev/ad0s1e      1037M   1.1M   953M     0%    /tmp
/dev/ad0s1d       6.1G   1.9G   3.7G    35%    /usr
/dev/ad4s1c.bde   150G   4.1K   138G     0%    /private

12.13.3. Mounting Existing Encrypted File Systems

After each boot, any encrypted file systems must be re-attached to the kernel, checked for errors, and mounted, before the file systems can be used. The required commands must be executed as user root.

  1. Attach the gbde Partition to the Kernel

    # gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c

    You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you selected during initialization of the encrypted gbde partition.

  2. Check the File System for Errors

    Since encrypted file systems cannot yet be listed in /etc/fstab for automatic mounting, the file systems must be checked for errors by running fsck(8) manually before mounting.

    # fsck -p -t ffs /dev/ad4s1c.bde

  3. Mount the Encrypted File System

    # mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private

    The encrypted file system is now available for use.

12.13.3.1. Automatically Mounting Encrypted Partitions

It is possible to create a script to automatically attach, check, and mount an encrypted partition, but for security reasons the script should not contain the gbde(8) password. Instead, it is recommended that such scripts be run manually while providing the password via the console or ssh(1).

12.13.4. Cryptographic Protections Employed by gbde

gbde(8) encrypts the sector payload using 128-bit AES in CBC mode. Each sector on the disk is encrypted with a different AES key. For more information on gbde's cryptographic design, including how the sector keys are derived from the user-supplied passphrase, see gbde(4).

12.13.5. Compatibility Issues

sysinstall(8) is incompatible with gbde-encrypted devices. All *.bde devices must be detached from the kernel before starting sysinstall(8) or it will crash during its initial probing for devices. To detach the encrypted device used in our example, use the following command:

# gbde detach /dev/ad4s1c

Also note that, as vinum(4) does not use the geom(4) subsystem, you cannot use gbde with vinum volumes.

Chapter 13. The Vinum Volume Manager

13.1. Synopsis

No matter what disks you have, there will always be limitations:

  • They can be too small.

  • They can be too slow.

  • They can be too unreliable.

13.2. Disks Are Too Small

Originally written by Greg Lehey.

Vinum is a so-called Volume Manager, a virtual disk driver that addresses these three problems. Let us look at them in more detail. Various solutions to these problems have been proposed and implemented:

Disks are getting bigger, but so are data storage requirements. Often you will find you want a file system that is bigger than the disks you have available. Admittedly, this problem is not as acute as it was ten years ago, but it still exists. Some systems have solved this by creating an abstract device which stores its data on a number of disks.

13.3. Access Bottlenecks

Modern systems frequently need to access data in a highly concurrent manner. For example, large FTP or HTTP servers can maintain thousands of concurrent sessions and have multiple 100 Mbit/s connections to the outside world, well beyond the sustained transfer rate of most disks.

Current disk drives can transfer data sequentially at up to 70 MB/s, but this value is of little importance in an environment where many independent processes access a drive, where they may achieve only a fraction of these values. In such cases it is more interesting to view the problem from the viewpoint of the disk subsystem: the important parameter is the load that a transfer places on the subsystem, in other words the time for which a transfer occupies the drives involved in the transfer.

In any disk transfer, the drive must first position the heads, wait for the first sector to pass under the read head, and then perform the transfer. These actions can be considered to be atomic: it does not make any sense to interrupt them.

Consider a typical transfer of about 10 kB: the current generation of high-performance disks can position the heads in an average of 3.5 ms. The fastest drives spin at 15,000 rpm, so the average rotational latency (half a revolution) is 2 ms. At 70 MB/s, the transfer itself takes about 150 μs, almost nothing compared to the positioning time. In such a case, the effective transfer rate drops to a little over 1 MB/s and is clearly highly dependent on the transfer size.

The traditional and obvious solution to this bottleneck is ``more spindles'': rather than using one large disk, it uses several smaller disks with the same aggregate storage space. Each disk is capable of positioning and transferring independently, so the effective throughput increases by a factor close to the number of disks used.

The exact throughput improvement is, of course, smaller than the number of disks involved: although each drive is capable of transferring in parallel, there is no way to ensure that the requests are evenly distributed across the drives. Inevitably the load on one drive will be higher than on another.

The evenness of the load on the disks is strongly dependent on the way the data is shared across the drives. In the following discussion, it is convenient to think of the disk storage as a large number of data sectors which are addressable by number, rather like the pages in a book. The most obvious method is to divide the virtual disk into groups of consecutive sectors the size of the individual physical disks and store them in this manner, rather like taking a large book and tearing it into smaller sections. This method is called concatenation and has the advantage that the disks are not required to have any specific size relationships. It works well when the access to the virtual disk is spread evenly about its address space. When access is concentrated on a smaller area, the improvement is less marked. Figure 13-1 illustrates the sequence in which storage units are allocated in a concatenated organization.

Figure 13-1. Concatenated Organization



An alternative mapping is to divide the address space into smaller, equal-sized components and store them sequentially on different devices. For example, the first 256 sectors may be stored on the first disk, the next 256 sectors on the next disk and so on. After filling the last disk, the process repeats until the disks are full. This mapping is called striping or RAID-0 [10]. Striping requires somewhat more effort to locate the data, and it can cause additional I/O load where a transfer is spread over multiple disks, but it can also provide a more constant load across the disks. Figure 13-2 illustrates the sequence in which storage units are allocated in a striped organization.

Figure 13-2. Striped Organization



13.4. Data Integrity

The final problem with current disks is that they are unreliable. Although disk drive reliability has increased tremendously over the last few years, they are still the most likely core component of a server to fail. When they do, the results can be catastrophic: replacing a failed disk drive and restoring data to it can take days.

The traditional way to approach this problem has been mirroring, keeping two copies of the data on different physical hardware. Since the advent of the RAID levels, this technique has also been called RAID level 1 or RAID-1. Any write to the volume writes to both locations; a read can be satisfied from either, so if one drive fails, the data is still available on the other drive.

Mirroring has two problems:

  • The price. It requires twice as much disk storage as a non-redundant solution.

  • The performance impact. Writes must be performed to both drives, so they take up twice the bandwidth of a non-mirrored volume. Reads do not suffer from a performance penalty: it even looks as if they are faster.

An alternative solution is parity, implemented in the RAID levels 2, 3, 4 and 5. Of these, RAID-5 is the most interesting. As implemented in Vinum, it is a variant on a striped organization which dedicates one block of each stripe to parity of the other blocks. As implemented by Vinum, a RAID-5 plex is similar to a striped plex, except that it implements RAID-5 by including a parity block in each stripe. As required by RAID-5, the location of this parity block changes from one stripe to the next. The numbers in the data blocks indicate the relative block numbers.

Figure 13-3. RAID-5 Organization



Compared to mirroring, RAID-5 has the advantage of requiring significantly less storage space. Read access is similar to that of striped organizations, but write access is significantly slower, approximately 25% of the read performance. If one drive fails, the array can continue to operate in degraded mode: a read from one of the remaining accessible drives continues normally, but a read from the failed drive is recalculated from the corresponding block from all the remaining drives.

13.5. Vinum Objects

In order to address these problems, Vinum implements a four-level hierarchy of objects:

  • The most visible object is the virtual disk, called a volume. Volumes have essentially the same properties as a UNIX disk drive, though there are some minor differences. They have no size limitations.

  • Volumes are composed of plexes, each of which represent the total address space of a volume. This level in the hierarchy thus provides redundancy. Think of plexes as individual disks in a mirrored array, each containing the same data.

  • Since Vinum exists within the UNIX disk storage framework, it would be possible to use UNIX partitions as the building block for multi-disk plexes, but in fact this turns out to be too inflexible: UNIX disks can have only a limited number of partitions. Instead, Vinum subdivides a single UNIX partition (the drive) into contiguous areas called subdisks, which it uses as building blocks for plexes.

  • Subdisks reside on Vinum drives, currently UNIX partitions. Vinum drives can contain any number of subdisks. With the exception of a small area at the beginning of the drive, which is used for storing configuration and state information, the entire drive is available for data storage.

The following sections describe the way these objects provide the functionality required of Vinum.

13.5.1. Volume Size Considerations

Plexes can include multiple subdisks spread over all drives in the Vinum configuration. As a result, the size of an individual drive does not limit the size of a plex, and thus of a volume.

13.5.2. Redundant Data Storage

Vinum implements mirroring by attaching multiple plexes to a volume. Each plex is a representation of the data in a volume. A volume may contain between one and eight plexes.

Although a plex represents the complete data of a volume, it is possible for parts of the representation to be physically missing, either by design (by not defining a subdisk for parts of the plex) or by accident (as a result of the failure of a drive). As long as at least one plex can provide the data for the complete address range of the volume, the volume is fully functional.

13.5.3. Performance Issues

Vinum implements both concatenation and striping at the plex level:

  • A concatenated plex uses the address space of each subdisk in turn.

  • A striped plex stripes the data across each subdisk. The subdisks must all have the same size, and there must be at least two subdisks in order to distinguish it from a concatenated plex.

13.5.4. Which Plex Organization?

The version of Vinum supplied with FreeBSD 5.2.1 implements two kinds of plex:

  • Concatenated plexes are the most flexible: they can contain any number of subdisks, and the subdisks may be of different length. The plex may be extended by adding additional subdisks. They require less CPU time than striped plexes, though the difference in CPU overhead is not measurable. On the other hand, they are most susceptible to hot spots, where one disk is very active and others are idle.

  • The greatest advantage of striped (RAID-0) plexes is that they reduce hot spots: by choosing an optimum sized stripe (about 256 kB), you can even out the load on the component drives. The disadvantages of this approach are (fractionally) more complex code and restrictions on subdisks: they must be all the same size, and extending a plex by adding new subdisks is so complicated that Vinum currently does not implement it. Vinum imposes an additional, trivial restriction: a striped plex must have at least two subdisks, since otherwise it is indistinguishable from a concatenated plex.

Table 13-1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each plex organization.

Table 13-1. Vinum Plex Organizations

Plex type Minimum subdisks Can add subdisks Must be equal size Application
concatenated 1 yes no Large data storage with maximum placement flexibility and moderate performance
striped 2 no yes High performance in combination with highly concurrent access

13.6. Some Examples

Vinum maintains a configuration database which describes the objects known to an individual system. Initially, the user creates the configuration database from one or more configuration files with the aid of the vinum(8) utility program. Vinum stores a copy of its configuration database on each disk slice (which Vinum calls a device) under its control. This database is updated on each state change, so that a restart accurately restores the state of each Vinum object.

13.6.1. The Configuration File

The configuration file describes individual Vinum objects. The definition of a simple volume might be:

    drive a device /dev/da3h
    volume myvol
      plex org concat
        sd length 512m drive a

This file describes four Vinum objects:

  • The drive line describes a disk partition (drive) and its location relative to the underlying hardware. It is given the symbolic name a. This separation of the symbolic names from the device names allows disks to be moved from one location to another without confusion.

  • The volume line describes a volume. The only required attribute is the name, in this case myvol.

  • The plex line defines a plex. The only required parameter is the organization, in this case concat. No name is necessary: the system automatically generates a name from the volume name by adding the suffix .px, where x is the number of the plex in the volume. Thus this plex will be called myvol.p0.

  • The sd line describes a subdisk. The minimum specifications are the name of a drive on which to store it, and the length of the subdisk. As with plexes, no name is necessary: the system automatically assigns names derived from the plex name by adding the suffix .sx, where x is the number of the subdisk in the plex. Thus Vinum gives this subdisk the name myvol.p0.s0.

After processing this file, vinum(8) produces the following output:

      # vinum -> create config1
      Configuration summary
      Drives:         1 (4 configured)
      Volumes:        1 (4 configured)
      Plexes:         1 (8 configured)
      Subdisks:       1 (16 configured)
     
    D a                     State: up       Device /dev/da3h        Avail: 2061/2573 MB (80%)
    
    V myvol                 State: up       Plexes:       1 Size:        512 MB
    
    P myvol.p0            C State: up       Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
    
    S myvol.p0.s0           State: up       PO:        0  B Size:        512 MB

This output shows the brief listing format of vinum(8). It is represented graphically in Figure 13-4.

Figure 13-4. A Simple Vinum Volume



This figure, and the ones which follow, represent a volume, which contains the plexes, which in turn contain the subdisks. In this trivial example, the volume contains one plex, and the plex contains one subdisk.

This particular volume has no specific advantage over a conventional disk partition. It contains a single plex, so it is not redundant. The plex contains a single subdisk, so there is no difference in storage allocation from a conventional disk partition. The following sections illustrate various more interesting configuration methods.

13.6.2. Increased Resilience: Mirroring

The resilience of a volume can be increased by mirroring. When laying out a mirrored volume, it is important to ensure that the subdisks of each plex are on different drives, so that a drive failure will not take down both plexes. The following configuration mirrors a volume:

   drive b device /dev/da4h
    volume mirror
      plex org concat
        sd length 512m drive a
      plex org concat
        sd length 512m drive b

In this example, it was not necessary to specify a definition of drive a again, since Vinum keeps track of all objects in its configuration database. After processing this definition, the configuration looks like:

   Drives:         2 (4 configured)
    Volumes:        2 (4 configured)
    Plexes:         3 (8 configured)
    Subdisks:       3 (16 configured)
    
    D a                     State: up       Device /dev/da3h        Avail: 1549/2573 MB (60%)
    D b                     State: up       Device /dev/da4h        Avail: 2061/2573 MB (80%)

    V myvol                 State: up       Plexes:       1 Size:        512 MB
    V mirror                State: up       Plexes:       2 Size:        512 MB
  
    P myvol.p0            C State: up       Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
    P mirror.p0           C State: up       Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
    P mirror.p1           C State: initializing     Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
  
    S myvol.p0.s0           State: up       PO:        0  B Size:        512 MB
    S mirror.p0.s0          State: up       PO:        0  B Size:        512 MB
    S mirror.p1.s0          State: empty    PO:        0  B Size:        512 MB

Figure 13-5 shows the structure graphically.

Figure 13-5. A Mirrored Vinum Volume



In this example, each plex contains the full 512 MB of address space. As in the previous example, each plex contains only a single subdisk.

13.6.3. Optimizing Performance

The mirrored volume in the previous example is more resistant to failure than an unmirrored volume, but its performance is less: each write to the volume requires a write to both drives, using up a greater proportion of the total disk bandwidth. Performance considerations demand a different approach: instead of mirroring, the data is striped across as many disk drives as possible. The following configuration shows a volume with a plex striped across four disk drives:

   drive c device /dev/da5h
    drive d device /dev/da6h
    volume stripe
    plex org striped 512k
      sd length 128m drive a
      sd length 128m drive b
      sd length 128m drive c
      sd length 128m drive d

As before, it is not necessary to define the drives which are already known to Vinum. After processing this definition, the configuration looks like:

   Drives:         4 (4 configured)
    Volumes:        3 (4 configured)
    Plexes:         4 (8 configured)
    Subdisks:       7 (16 configured)
  
    D a                     State: up       Device /dev/da3h        Avail: 1421/2573 MB (55%)
    D b                     State: up       Device /dev/da4h        Avail: 1933/2573 MB (75%)
    D c                     State: up       Device /dev/da5h        Avail: 2445/2573 MB (95%)
    D d                     State: up       Device /dev/da6h        Avail: 2445/2573 MB (95%)
  
    V myvol                 State: up       Plexes:       1 Size:        512 MB
    V mirror                State: up       Plexes:       2 Size:        512 MB
    V striped               State: up       Plexes:       1 Size:        512 MB
  
    P myvol.p0            C State: up       Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
    P mirror.p0           C State: up       Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
    P mirror.p1           C State: initializing     Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
    P striped.p1            State: up       Subdisks:     1 Size:        512 MB
  
    S myvol.p0.s0           State: up       PO:        0  B Size:        512 MB
    S mirror.p0.s0          State: up       PO:        0  B Size:        512 MB
    S mirror.p1.s0          State: empty    PO:        0  B Size:        512 MB
    S striped.p0.s0         State: up       PO:        0  B Size:        128 MB
    S striped.p0.s1         State: up       PO:      512 kB Size:        128 MB
    S striped.p0.s2         State: up       PO:     1024 kB Size:        128 MB
    S striped.p0.s3         State: up       PO:     1536 kB Size:        128 MB

Figure 13-6. A Striped Vinum Volume



This volume is represented in Figure 13-6. The darkness of the stripes indicates the position within the plex address space: the lightest stripes come first, the darkest last.

13.6.4. Resilience and Performance

With sufficient hardware, it is possible to build volumes which show both increased resilience and increased performance compared to standard UNIX partitions. A typical configuration file might be:

   volume raid10
      plex org striped 512k
        sd length 102480k drive a
        sd length 102480k drive b
        sd length 102480k drive c
        sd length 102480k drive d
        sd length 102480k drive e
      plex org striped 512k
        sd length 102480k drive c
        sd length 102480k drive d
        sd length 102480k drive e
        sd length 102480k drive a
        sd length 102480k drive b

The subdisks of the second plex are offset by two drives from those of the first plex: this helps ensure that writes do not go to the same subdisks even if a transfer goes over two drives.

Figure 13-7 represents the structure of this volume.

Figure 13-7. A Mirrored, Striped Vinum Volume



13.7. Object Naming

As described above, Vinum assigns default names to plexes and subdisks, although they may be overridden. Overriding the default names is not recommended: experience with the VERITAS volume manager, which allows arbitrary naming of objects, has shown that this flexibility does not bring a significant advantage, and it can cause confusion.

Names may contain any non-blank character, but it is recommended to restrict them to letters, digits and the underscore characters. The names of volumes, plexes and subdisks may be up to 64 characters long, and the names of drives may be up to 32 characters long.

Vinum objects are assigned device nodes in the hierarchy /dev/vinum. The configuration shown above would cause Vinum to create the following device nodes:

  • The control devices /dev/vinum/control and /dev/vinum/controld, which are used by vinum(8) and the Vinum daemon respectively.

  • Block and character device entries for each volume. These are the main devices used by Vinum. The block device names are the name of the volume, while the character device names follow the BSD tradition of prepending the letter r to the name. Thus the configuration above would include the block devices /dev/vinum/myvol, /dev/vinum/mirror, /dev/vinum/striped, /dev/vinum/raid5 and /dev/vinum/raid10, and the character devices /dev/vinum/rmyvol, /dev/vinum/rmirror, /dev/vinum/rstriped, /dev/vinum/rraid5 and /dev/vinum/rraid10. There is obviously a problem here: it is possible to have two volumes called r and rr, but there will be a conflict creating the device node /dev/vinum/rr: is it a character device for volume r or a block device for volume rr? Currently Vinum does not address this conflict: the first-defined volume will get the name.

  • A directory /dev/vinum/drive with entries for each drive. These entries are in fact symbolic links to the corresponding disk nodes.

  • A directory /dev/vinum/volume with entries for each volume. It contains subdirectories for each plex, which in turn contain subdirectories for their component subdisks.

  • The directories /dev/vinum/plex, /dev/vinum/sd, and /dev/vinum/rsd, which contain block device nodes for each plex and block and character device nodes respectively for each subdisk.

For example, consider the following configuration file:

   drive drive1 device /dev/sd1h
    drive drive2 device /dev/sd2h
    drive drive3 device /dev/sd3h
    drive drive4 device /dev/sd4h
    volume s64 setupstate
      plex org striped 64k
        sd length 100m drive drive1
        sd length 100m drive drive2
        sd length 100m drive drive3
        sd length 100m drive drive4

After processing this file, vinum(8) creates the following structure in /dev/vinum:

   brwx------  1 root  wheel   25, 0x40000001 Apr 13 16:46 Control
    brwx------  1 root  wheel   25, 0x40000002 Apr 13 16:46 control
    brwx------  1 root  wheel   25, 0x40000000 Apr 13 16:46 controld
    drwxr-xr-x  2 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 drive
    drwxr-xr-x  2 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 plex
    crwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   91,   2 Apr 13 16:46 rs64
    drwxr-xr-x  2 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 rsd
    drwxr-xr-x  2 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 rvol
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25,   2 Apr 13 16:46 s64
    drwxr-xr-x  2 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 sd
    drwxr-xr-x  3 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 vol

    /dev/vinum/drive:
    total 0
    lrwxr-xr-x  1 root  wheel  9 Apr 13 16:46 drive1 -> /dev/sd1h
    lrwxr-xr-x  1 root  wheel  9 Apr 13 16:46 drive2 -> /dev/sd2h
    lrwxr-xr-x  1 root  wheel  9 Apr 13 16:46 drive3 -> /dev/sd3h
    lrwxr-xr-x  1 root  wheel  9 Apr 13 16:46 drive4 -> /dev/sd4h
  
    /dev/vinum/plex:
    total 0
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x10000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0
    
    /dev/vinum/rsd:
    total 0
    crwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   91, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0
    crwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   91, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1
    crwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   91, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2
    crwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   91, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3
  
    /dev/vinum/rvol:
    total 0
    crwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   91,   2 Apr 13 16:46 s64
  
    /dev/vinum/sd:
    total 0
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3
  
    /dev/vinum/vol:
    total 1
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25,   2 Apr 13 16:46 s64
    drwxr-xr-x  3 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 s64.plex
  
    /dev/vinum/vol/s64.plex:
    total 1
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x10000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0
    drwxr-xr-x  2 root  wheel       512 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.sd
  
    /dev/vinum/vol/s64.plex/s64.p0.sd:
    total 0
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20000002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s0
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20100002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s1
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20200002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s2
    brwxr-xr--  1 root  wheel   25, 0x20300002 Apr 13 16:46 s64.p0.s3

Although it is recommended that plexes and subdisks should not be allocated specific names, Vinum drives must be named. This makes it possible to move a drive to a different location and still recognize it automatically. Drive names may be up to 32 characters long.

13.7.1. Creating File Systems

Volumes appear to the system to be identical to disks, with one exception. Unlike UNIX drives, Vinum does not partition volumes, which thus do not contain a partition table. This has required modification to some disk utilities, notably newfs(8), which previously tried to interpret the last letter of a Vinum volume name as a partition identifier. For example, a disk drive may have a name like /dev/ad0a or /dev/da2h. These names represent the first partition (a) on the first (0) IDE disk (ad) and the eighth partition (h) on the third (2) SCSI disk (da) respectively. By contrast, a Vinum volume might be called /dev/vinum/concat, a name which has no relationship with a partition name.

Normally, newfs(8) interprets the name of the disk and complains if it cannot understand it. For example:

# newfs /dev/vinum/concat
newfs: /dev/vinum/concat: can't figure out file system partition

Note: The following is only valid for FreeBSD versions prior to 5.0:

In order to create a file system on this volume, use the -v option to newfs(8):

# newfs -v /dev/vinum/concat

13.8. Configuring Vinum

The GENERIC kernel does not contain Vinum. It is possible to build a special kernel which includes Vinum, but this is not recommended. The standard way to start Vinum is as a kernel module (kld). You do not even need to use kldload(8) for Vinum: when you start vinum(8), it checks whether the module has been loaded, and if it is not, it loads it automatically.

13.8.1. Startup

Vinum stores configuration information on the disk slices in essentially the same form as in the configuration files. When reading from the configuration database, Vinum recognizes a number of keywords which are not allowed in the configuration files. For example, a disk configuration might contain the following text:

volume myvol state up
volume bigraid state down
plex name myvol.p0 state up org concat vol myvol
plex name myvol.p1 state up org concat vol myvol
plex name myvol.p2 state init org striped 512b vol myvol
plex name bigraid.p0 state initializing org raid5 512b vol bigraid
sd name myvol.p0.s0 drive a plex myvol.p0 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 0b
sd name myvol.p0.s1 drive b plex myvol.p0 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 1048576b
sd name myvol.p1.s0 drive c plex myvol.p1 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 0b
sd name myvol.p1.s1 drive d plex myvol.p1 state up len 1048576b driveoffset 265b plexoffset 1048576b
sd name myvol.p2.s0 drive a plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 0b
sd name myvol.p2.s1 drive b plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 524288b
sd name myvol.p2.s2 drive c plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 1048576b
sd name myvol.p2.s3 drive d plex myvol.p2 state init len 524288b driveoffset 1048841b plexoffset 1572864b
sd name bigraid.p0.s0 drive a plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 0b
sd name bigraid.p0.s1 drive b plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 4194304b
sd name bigraid.p0.s2 drive c plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 8388608b
sd name bigraid.p0.s3 drive d plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 12582912b
sd name bigraid.p0.s4 drive e plex bigraid.p0 state initializing len 4194304b driveoff set 1573129b plexoffset 16777216b

The obvious differences here are the presence of explicit location information and naming (both of which are also allowed, but discouraged, for use by the user) and the information on the states (which are not available to the user). Vinum does not store information about drives in the configuration information: it finds the drives by scanning the configured disk drives for partitions with a Vinum label. This enables Vinum to identify drives correctly even if they have been assigned different UNIX drive IDs.

13.8.1.1. Automatic Startup

In order to start Vinum automatically when you boot the system, ensure that you have the following line in your /etc/rc.conf:

start_vinum="YES"      # set to YES to start vinum

If you do not have a file /etc/rc.conf, create one with this content. This will cause the system to load the Vinum kld at startup, and to start any objects mentioned in the configuration. This is done before mounting file systems, so it is possible to automatically fsck(8) and mount file systems on Vinum volumes.

When you start Vinum with the vinum start command, Vinum reads the configuration database from one of the Vinum drives. Under normal circumstances, each drive contains an identical copy of the configuration database, so it does not matter which drive is read. After a crash, however, Vinum must determine which drive was updated most recently and read the configuration from this drive. It then updates the configuration if necessary from progressively older drives.

13.9. Using Vinum for the Root Filesystem

For a machine that has fully-mirrored filesystems using Vinum, it is desirable to also mirror the root filesystem. Setting up such a configuration is less trivial than mirroring an arbitrary filesystem because:

  • The root filesystem must be available very early during the boot process, so the Vinum infrastructure must already be available at this time.

  • The volume containing the root filesystem also contains the system bootstrap and the kernel, which must be read using the host system's native utilities (e. g. the BIOS on PC-class machines) which often cannot be taught about the details of Vinum.

In the following sections, the term ``root volume'' is generally used to describe the Vinum volume that contains the root filesystem. It is probably a good idea to use the name "root" for this volume, but this is not technically required in any way. All command examples in the following sections assume this name though.

13.9.1. Starting up Vinum Early Enough for the Root Filesystem

There are several measures to take for this to happen:

  • Vinum must be available in the kernel at boot-time. Thus, the method to start Vinum automatically described in Section 13.8.1.1 is not applicable to accomplish this task, and the start_vinum parameter must actually not be set when the following setup is being arranged. The first option would be to compile Vinum statically into the kernel, so it is available all the time, but this is usually not desirable. There is another option as well, to have /boot/loader (Section 7.3.3) load the vinum kernel module early, before starting the kernel. This can be accomplished by putting the line

    vinum_load="YES"

    into the file /boot/loader.conf.

  • Vinum must be initialized early since it needs to supply the volume for the root filesystem. By default, the Vinum kernel part is not looking for drives that might contain Vinum volume information until the administrator (or one of the startup scripts) issues a vinum start command.

    Note: The following paragraphs are outlining the steps needed for FreeBSD 5.x and above. The setup required for FreeBSD 4.x differs, and is described below in Section 13.9.5.

    By placing the line:

    vinum.autostart="YES"

    into /boot/loader.conf, Vinum is instructed to automatically scan all drives for Vinum information as part of the kernel startup.

    Note that it is not necessary to instruct the kernel where to look for the root filesystem. /boot/loader looks up the name of the root device in /etc/fstab, and passes this information on to the kernel. When it comes to mount the root filesystem, the kernel figures out from the devicename provided which driver to ask to translate this into the internal device ID (major/minor number).

13.9.2. Making a Vinum-based Root Volume Accessible to the Bootstrap

Since the current FreeBSD bootstrap is only 7.5 KB of code, and already has the burden of reading files (like /boot/loader) from the UFS filesystem, it is sheer impossible to also teach it about internal Vinum structures so it could parse the Vinum configuration data, and figure out about the elements of a boot volume itself. Thus, some tricks are necessary to provide the bootstrap code with the illusion of a standard "a" partition that contains the root filesystem.

For this to be possible at all, the following requirements must be met for the root volume:

  • The root volume must not be striped or RAID-5.

  • The root volume must not contain more than one concatenated subdisk per plex.

Note that it is desirable and possible that there are multiple plexes, each containing one replica of the root filesystem. The bootstrap process will, however, only use one of these replica for finding the bootstrap and all the files, until the kernel will eventually mount the root filesystem itself. Each single subdisk within these plexes will then need its own "a" partition illusion, for the respective device to become bootable. It is not strictly needed that each of these faked "a" partitions is located at the same offset within its device, compared with other devices containing plexes of the root volume. However, it is probably a good idea to create the Vinum volumes that way so the resulting mirrored devices are symmetric, to avoid confusion.

In order to setup these "a" partitions, for each device containing part of the root volume, the following needs to be done:

  1. The location (offset from the beginning of the device) and size of this device's subdisk that is part of the root volume need to be examined, using the command

    vinum l -rv root

    Note that Vinum offsets and sizes are measured in bytes. They must be divided by 512 in order to obtain the block numbers that are to be used in the disklabel command.

  2. Run the command

    disklabel -e devname

    for each device that participates in the root volume. devname must be either the name of the disk (like da0) for disks without a slice (aka. fdisk) table, or the name of the slice (like ad0s1).

    If there is already an "a" partition on the device (presumably, containing a pre-Vinum root filesystem), it should be renamed to something else, so it remains accessible (just in case), but will no longer be used by default to bootstrap the system. Note that active partitions (like a root filesystem currently mounted) cannot be renamed, so this must be executed either when being booted from a ``Fixit'' medium, or in a two-step process, where (in a mirrored situation) the disk that has not been currently booted is being manipulated first.

    Then, the offset the Vinum partition on this device (if any) must be added to the offset of the respective root volume subdisk on this device. The resulting value will become the "offset" value for the new "a" partition. The "size" value for this partition can be taken verbatim from the calculation above. The "fstype" should be 4.2BSD. The "fsize", "bsize", and "cpg" values should best be chosen to match the actual filesystem, though they are fairly unimportant within this context.

    That way, a new "a" partition will be established that overlaps the Vinum partition on this device. Note that the disklabel will only allow for this overlap if the Vinum partition has properly been marked using the "vinum" fstype.

  3. That's all! A faked "a" partition does exist now on each device that has one replica of the root volume. It is highly recommendable to verify the result again, using a command like

    fsck -n /dev/devnamea

It should be remembered that all files containing control information must be relative to the root filesystem in the Vinum volume which, when setting up a new Vinum root volume, might not match the root filesystem that is currently active. So in particular, the files /etc/fstab and /boot/loader.conf need to be taken care of.

At next reboot, the bootstrap should figure out the appropriate control information from the new Vinum-based root filesystem, and act accordingly. At the end of the kernel initialization process, after all devices have been announced, the prominent notice that shows the success of this setup is a message like:

Mounting root from ufs:/dev/vinum/root


13.9.3. Example of a Vinum-based Root Setup

After the Vinum root volume has been set up, the output of vinum l -rv root could look like:

...
Subdisk root.p0.s0:
        Size:        125829120 bytes (120 MB)
        State: up
        Plex root.p0 at offset 0 (0  B)
        Drive disk0 (/dev/da0h) at offset 135680 (132 kB)

Subdisk root.p1.s0:
        Size:        125829120 bytes (120 MB)
        State: up
        Plex root.p1 at offset 0 (0  B)
        Drive disk1 (/dev/da1h) at offset 135680 (132 kB)


The values to note are 135680 for the offset (relative to partition /dev/da0h). This translates to 265 512-byte disk blocks in disklabel's terms. Likewise, the size of this root volume is 245760 512-byte blocks. /dev/da1h, containing the second replica of this root volume, has a symmetric setup.

The disklabel for these devices might look like:

...
8 partitions:
#        size   offset    fstype   [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
  a:   245760      281    4.2BSD     2048 16384     0   # (Cyl.    0*- 15*)
  c: 71771688        0    unused        0     0         # (Cyl.    0 - 4467*)
  h: 71771672       16     vinum                        # (Cyl.    0*- 4467*)


It can be observed that the "size" parameter for the faked "a" partition matches the value outlined above, while the "offset" parameter is the sum of the offset within the Vinum partition "h", and the offset of this partition within the device (or slice). This is a typical setup that is necessary to avoid the problem described in Section 13.9.4.3. It can also be seen that the entire "a" partition is completely within the "h" partition containing all the Vinum data for this device.

Note that in the above example, the entire device is dedicated to Vinum, and there is no leftover pre-Vinum root partition, since this has been a newly set-up disk that was only meant to be part of a Vinum configuration, ever.

13.9.4. Troubleshooting

If something goes wrong, a way is needed to recover from the situation. The following list contains few known pitfalls and solutions.

13.9.4.1. System Bootstrap Loads, but System Does Not Boot

If for any reason the system does not continue to boot, the bootstrap can be interrupted with by pressing the space key at the 10-seconds warning. The loader variables (like vinum.autostart) can be examined using the show, and manipulated using set or unset commands.

If the only problem was that the Vinum kernel module was not yet in the list of modules to load automatically, a simple load vinum will help.

When ready, the boot process can be continued with a boot -as. The options -as will request the kernel to ask for the root filesystem to mount (-a), and make the boot process stop in single-user mode (-s), where the root filesystem is mounted read-only. That way, even if only one plex of a multi-plex volume has been mounted, no data inconsistency between plexes is being risked.

At the prompt asking for a root filesystem to mount, any device that contains a valid root filesystem can be entered. If /etc/fstab had been set up correctly, the default should be something like ufs:/dev/vinum/root. A typical alternate choice would be something like ufs:da0d which could be a hypothetical partition that contains the pre-Vinum root filesystem. Care should be taken if one of the alias "a" partitions are entered here that are actually reference to the subdisks of the Vinum root device, because in a mirrored setup, this would only mount one piece of a mirrored root device. If this filesystem is to be mounted read-write later on, it is necessary to remove the other plex(es) of the Vinum root volume since these plexes would otherwise carry inconsistent data.

13.9.4.2. Only Primary Bootstrap Loads

If /boot/loader fails to load, but the primary bootstrap still loads (visible by a single dash in the left column of the screen right after the boot process starts), an attempt can be made to interrupt the primary bootstrap at this point, using the space key. This will make the bootstrap stop in stage two, see Section 7.3.2. An attempt can be made here to boot off an alternate partition, like the partition containing the previous root filesystem that has been moved away from "a" above.

13.9.4.3. Nothing Boots, the Bootstrap Panics

This situation will happen if the bootstrap had been destroyed by the Vinum installation. Unfortunately, Vinum accidentally currently leaves only 4 KB at the beginning of its partition free before starting to write its Vinum header information. However, the stage one and two bootstraps plus the disklabel embedded between them currently require 8 KB. So if a Vinum partition was started at offset 0 within a slice or disk that was meant to be bootable, the Vinum setup will trash the bootstrap.

Similarly, if the above situation has been recovered, for example by booting from a ``Fixit'' medium, and the bootstrap has been re-installed using disklabel -B as described in Section 7.3.2, the bootstrap will trash the Vinum header, and Vinum will no longer find its disk(s). Though no actual Vinum configuration data or data in Vinum volumes will be trashed by this, and it would be possible to recover all the data by entering exact the same Vinum configuration data again, the situation is hard to fix at all. It would be necessary to move the entire Vinum partition by at least 4 KB off, in order to have the Vinum header and the system bootstrap no longer collide.

13.9.5. Differences for FreeBSD 4.x

Under FreeBSD 4.x, some internal functions required to make Vinum automatically scan all disks are missing, and the code that figures out the internal ID of the root device is not smart enough to handle a name like /dev/vinum/root automatically. Therefore, things are a little different here.

Vinum must explicitly be told which disks to scan, using a line like the following one in /boot/loader.conf:

vinum.drives="/dev/da0 /dev/da1"

It is important that all drives are mentioned that could possibly contain Vinum data. It does not harm if more drives are listed, nor is it necessary to add each slice and/or partition explicitly, since Vinum will scan all slices and partitions of the named drives for valid Vinum headers.

Since the routines used to parse the name of the root filesystem, and derive the device ID (major/minor number) are only prepared to handle ``classical'' device names like /dev/ad0s1a, they cannot make any sense out of a root volume name like /dev/vinum/root. For that reason, Vinum itself needs to pre-setup the internal kernel parameter that holds the ID of the root device during its own initialization. This is requested by passing the name of the root volume in the loader variable vinum.root. The entry in /boot/loader.conf to accomplish this looks like:

vinum.root="root"

Now, when the kernel initialization tries to find out the root device to mount, it sees whether some kernel module has already pre-initialized the kernel parameter for it. If that is the case, and the device claiming the root device matches the major number of the driver as figured out from the name of the root device string being passed (that is, "vinum" in our case), it will use the pre-allocated device ID, instead of trying to figure out one itself. That way, during the usual automatic startup, it can continue to mount the Vinum root volume for the root filesystem.

However, when boot -a has been requesting to ask for entering the name of the root device manually, it must be noted that this routine still cannot actually parse a name entered there that refers to a Vinum volume. If any device name is entered that does not refer to a Vinum device, the mismatch between the major numbers of the pre-allocated root parameter and the driver as figured out from the given name will make this routine enter its normal parser, so entering a string like ufs:da0d will work as expected. Note that if this fails, it is however no longer possible to re-enter a string like ufs:vinum/root again, since it cannot be parsed. The only way out is to reboot again, and start over then. (At the ``askroot'' prompt, the initial /dev/ can always be omitted.)

Chapter 14. 本地化－I18N/L10N使用和设置

Contributed by Andrey A. Chernov. Rewritten by Michael C. Wu.

14.1. 摘要

FreeBSD是一个由分布于全世界的用户和贡献者支持的项目。 这章将讨论FreeBSD的国际化和本地化的问题,允许非英语用户也能使用FreeBSD很好地工作。 在系统和应用水平上，主要是通过执行i18N标准来实现的，所以这里我们将为读者提供详细的介绍。

读完这一章，你将了解到：

  • 不同的语言和地域是如何在现代操作系统上进行编码的。

  • 如何为你的登入shell设置本地化。

  • 如何配置你的控制台为非英语语言。 languages.

  • 如何使用不同的语言来有效地使用X Windows。

  • 在哪里可以找到更多有关开发符合i18N标准的应用程序的信息。

阅读这章之前，你应当了解：

  • 怎样安装额外的第三方程序（Chapter 4）。

14.2. 基础知识

14.2.1. 什么是I18N/L10N?

开发人员把internationalization简写成I18N,中间的数字是前后两个字母间的字母个数。 L10N依据``localization'' 使用同样的命名规则。 I18N/L10N方法、协议和应用结合在一起，允许用户使用他们自己所选择的语言。

I18N应用程序使用I18N工具来编程。它允许开发人员写一个简单的文件， 就可以将显示的菜单和文本翻译成本地语言。我们非常鼓励程序员遵循这种规则。

14.2.2. 为什么要使用I18N/L10N?

I18N/L10N标准能够很好地支持你查看、输入或处理非英语语言。

14.2.3. I18N支持哪里语言？

I18N和L10N不是FreeBSD特有的。当前，它能支持世界上绝大部分主力语言， 包括但不限于：中文，德文，日文，朝鲜文，法文，俄文，越南文等等。

14.3. 使用本地化语言

I18N不是FreeBSD特有的，它是一个规则。我们鼓励你帮助FreeBSD完善这一规则。

本地化设置需要具备三个条件：语言代码（Language Code）、国家代码（Country Code）和编码（Encoding） 。本地名字可以用下面这些部分来构造：

语言代码_国家代码.编码

14.3.1. 语言和国家代码

为了用特殊的语言来对FreeBSD系统进行本地化（或其他类UNIX系统）， 用户必须要知道相应的国家和语言代码（国家代码告诉应用程序使用哪一种语言规范）。 此外，WEB浏览器，SMTP/POP服务器，web服务器等都是以这个为基础的。下面就是一个国家和语言代码的例子:

语言/国家代码 描述
en_US 美国英语
ru_RU 俄语
zh_CN 简体中文

14.3.2. 编码

一些语言不使用ASCII编码，它们使用8位，更宽或多位的字符，更多的信息可以看看multibyte(3) 。 比较老的应用程序可能会无法认出它们，把它们误认为是控制字符。 比较新的应用程序通常会认出8位字符。 根据执行情况，用户可能需要使用更 宽或多位字符支持的标准来重新编译这个应用程序，或者将它正确配置。FreeBSD Ports collection 已经为每一个语言提供了相应的程序。可以在各自的FreeBSD port中参考一下I18N的文档。

需要特别指出的：用户需要看看应用程序的文档以决定如何配置才能正确设置configure/Makefile/compiler。

记住下面这些:

  • 特定语言的简单C字符集（参考multibyte(3)），以及ISO-8859-1, ISO-8859-15, KOI8-R, CP437.

  • 宽字节或多字节编码，如EUC, Big5。

你可以在IANA Registry检查一下现行的字符集列表。

Note: FreeBSD 4.5及以后的版本使用X11兼容的本地编码来代替。

14.3.3. I18N应用程序

在FreeBSD Ports和Package系统里面，I18N应用程序已经使用I18N 来命名。然而它们不是总支持需要的语言。

14.3.4. 本地化设置

通常只要在登入shell里面设置LANG为本地化，一般通过设置用户的~/.login_conf 或用户shell的启动文件（~/.profile，~/.bashrc, ~/.cshrc）。没有必要设置LC_CTYPE，LC_CTIME。 更多的信息请参考特定语言的FreeBSD文档。

你应当在你的配置文件中设置下面两个变量：

  • LANG 为POSIX设置本地化语言功能。

  • MM_CHARSET应用程序的MIME字符集。

这包括用户的shell配置，特定的应用配置和X11配置。

14.3.4.1. 设置本地化的方法

有两种方法来设置本地化，接下来都会描述。 第一种（被推荐的一种）就是在登入分类 里面指定环境变量。 第二种方法是把环境变量加到shell的启动文件里面。

14.3.4.1.1. 登入分类方法

这种方法允许把本地化名称和MIME字符集的环境变量赋给可能的shell，而不是加到每个特定shell的启动文件里面。 用户级设置 Level Setup 允许普通用户自己完成这个设置，而管理员级设置需要超级用户权限。

14.3.4.1.1.1. 用户级设置

这有一个设置用户根目录文件.login_conf的小例子， 它为上述两个变量设置了Latin-1编码。

me:\
    :charset=ISO-8859-1:\
    :lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1:

这是一个为.login_conf设置繁体中文的BIG-5编码的例子。应该设置下面的大部分变量， 因为很多软件都没有为中文，日文和韩文设置正确的本地化变量。

#Users who do not wish to use monetary units or time formats
#of Taiwan can manually change each variable
me:\
    lang=zh_TW.Big5:\
    lc_all=zh_TW.Big:\
    lc_collate=zh_TW.Big5:\
    lc_ctype=zh_TW.Big5:\
    lc_messages=zh_TW.Big5:\
    lc_monetary=zh_TW.Big5:\
    lc_numeric=zh_TW.Big5:\
    lc_time=zh_TW.Big5:\
    charset=big5:\
    xmodifiers="@im=xcin": #Setting the XIM Input Server

更多的信息参考管理员级设置和login.conf(5)

14.3.4.1.1.2. 管理员级设置

检查用户的登入分类在 /etc/login.conf里面是否设置了正确的语言。主要确定下面的几个设置：

language_name:accounts_title:\
    :charset=MIME_charset:\
    :lang=locale_name:\
    :tc=default:

再次使用前面的Latin-1编码的例子：

german:German Users Accounts:\
    :charset=ISO-8859-1:\
    :lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1:\
    :tc=default:
使用vipw(8)改变登入类型。

使用vipw添加新用户，看起来像下面这样：

user:password:1111:11:language:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh
用adduser(8)改变登入类型。

用adduser添加新用户看起来像下面这样：

  • 在/etc/adduser.conf里面设置defaultclass = 语言。应该记住，你必须为使用其它语言的所有用户设置 缺省类别。

  • 每一次使用adduser(8)的时候，一个特定语言的可选择性回答会像下面这样给出：

    Enter login class: default []:


  • 如果你打算给每一个用户使用另外一种语言，你应该这样：

    # adduser -class language
使用pw(8)改变登入类型。

如果你使用pw(8)来添加新用户，应该这样使用：

# pw useradd user_name -L language
14.3.4.1.2. Shell启动文件方法

Note: 不推荐使用这种方法，因为它需要给每一个可能的shell程序一个不同的启动文件。 应该用登入分类方法来代替这种方法。

为了设置本地化名称和MIME字符集，只要在/etc/profile或 /etc/csh.login启动文件里面设置这两个变量。下面我们使用德语做例子：

在/etc/profile里面：

LANG=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export LANG
MM_CHARSET=ISO-8859-1; export MM_CHARSET

或在/etc/csh.login里面：

setenv LANG de_DE.ISO8859-1
setenv MM_CHARSET ISO-8859-1

另外，你可以把上面的设置添加到/usr/share/skel/dot.profile （和前面的/etc/profile一样），或者/usr/share/skel/dot.login （和前面的/etc/csh.login一样）。

对于X11：

在$HOME/.xinitrc里面：

LANG=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export LANG

或者：

setenv LANG de_DE.ISO8859-1

依赖你的shell(看上面）。

14.3.5. 控制台设置

对于所有的简单C字符集，在/etc/rc.conf中用正在讨论的语言设置正确的控制台字符：

font8x16=font_name
font8x14=font_name
font8x8=font_name

这儿的font_name来自于/usr/share/syscons/fonts目录， 不带.fnt后缀。

也可以通过/stand/sysinstall来设置键盘布局和屏幕布局。 进入sysinstall，选择Configure，然后 Console。你也可以在/etc/rc.conf里面添加下面几行：

scrnmap=screenmap_name
keymap=keymap_name
keychange="fkey_number sequence"

这儿的screenmap_name是来自/usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps目录， 不带.scm后缀。 一个带影射字体的屏幕布局通常被作为一个工作区， 用来在VGA适配器字体矩阵上扩展8位到9位。 如果屏幕字体是使用一个8位的排列，要移动这些字母离开这些区域。

如果你在/etc/rc.conf里面启用了moused daemon：

moused_enable="YES"

那么需要在下一段检查鼠标指针信息。

默认情况下， syscons(4)驱动程序的鼠标指针在字符集中占用0xd0-0xd3的范围。 如果你的语言使用这个范围，你必须把指针范围移出这个范围。 要在5.0以前的FreeBSD版本中启用工作区，需要在你的内核中添加下面这行：

options        SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03

对于FreeBSD 4.4 和以后的版本，需要在/etc/rc.conf加入这一行：

mousechar_start=3

这儿的keymap_name来自于/usr/share/syscons/keymaps目录， 不带.kbd后缀。如果你不确定该使用哪一种键盘布局，使用kbdmap(1)你可以不重起 来检测你的键盘布局。

因为功能键的范围不能被定义在键盘地图中，所以keychange通常需要安排功能键来匹配选择的终端类型。

也可以在/etc/ttys为所有ttyv*记录设定正确的控制台终端类型。 当前，预定义是这样的：

字符集设置 终端类型
ISO-8859-1 or ISO-8859-15 cons25l1
ISO-8859-2 cons25l2
ISO-8859-7 cons25l7
KOI8-R cons25r
KOI8-U cons25u
CP437 (VGA default) cons25
US-ASCII cons25w

对于多字节字符语言，可以你的在/usr/ports/language 目录中使用正确的FreeBSD port。一些port以控制台出现，而系统把它作为串行vtty终端，因此， 你必须为X11和伪串行控制台准备足够的vtty终端。这儿是在控制台中使用其他语言的应用程序的部分列表：

语言 特定区域
Traditional Chinese (BIG-5) chinese/big5con
Japanese japanese/ja-kon2-* or japanese/Mule_Wnn
Korean korean/ko-han

14.3.6. X11设置

虽然X11不是FreeBSD计划的一部分，但我们已经为FreeBSD用户包含了一些信息。 具体细节可以参考XFree86web站点或是你使用的无论哪个X11 Server。

在~/.Xresources里面，你可以适当调整特定应用程序的I18N设置（如字体，菜单等）。

14.3.6.1. 显示字体

安装X11 TrueType公共服务器（x11-servers/XttXF86srv-common） 和安装对应语言的TrueType字体。设置正确的本地信息可以允许你在菜单上看到你所选的语言。

14.3.6.2. 输入非英语字符

X11输入方法（XIM）协议是所有X11客户端的一个新标准。 所有将作为XIM客户端来写的X11应用程序从XIM输入服务器输入。 不同的语言有几种XIM服务器可用。

14.3.7. 打印机设置

一些简单的C字符集通常是用硬编码来编码进打印机的。更宽或多位的字符集需要特定的设置， 我们推荐使用apsfilter。你也可以使用特定语言转换器把文档转换为 PostScript或PDF格式。

14.3.8. 内核和文件系统

FreeBSD快速文件系统(FFS)是纯8位的，所以它能使用任何简单的C字符集（参考multibyte(3)）， 但不会有字符集名字会储存在文件系统中。它是不知道任何有关编码规则的。 正式的，FFS不支持任何更宽的或多位的字符集形式。 然而一些更宽的或多位的字符集已经通过添加补丁来对FFS进行支持。 他们只是临时性的修正，我们决定不把他们包括在源代码树中。 可以参考相关语言的web站点看看更多信息和修正文件。

FreeBSD MS-DOS已经能够配置成用在MS-DOS上，Unicode字符集和可选的FreeBSD文件系统字符集的更多信息， 请参考mount_msdos(8)手册页。

14.4. 编译I18N程序

许多FreeBSD Ports已经支持I18N了。他们中的一些都用-I18N作标记。 这些和其他很多程序已经内建I18N的支持，不需要考虑其他的事项了。

然而一些像MySQL这样的应用程序需要重新配置字符集，可在 Makefile里面设置，或者直接把参数传递给configure。

14.5. 本地化FreeBSD

14.5.1. 俄语（KOI8-R编码）

Originally contributed by Andrey A. Chernov.

关于KOI8-R编码的更多信息请查阅KOI8-R参考（Russian Net Character Set）。

14.5.1.1. 本地设置

把下面的行加入到你的~/.login_conf文件：

me:My Account:\
    :charset=KOI8-R:\
    :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R:

参看前面的设置本地化的例子。

14.5.1.2. 控制台设置

  • 对于FreeBSD 5.0以前的版本，添加下面这行到内核配置文件：

    options        SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03

    对于FreeBSD 4.4和更高版本把下面一行加入到/etc/rc.conf：

    mousechar_start=3

  • 在/etc/rc.conf里面使用如下设置：

    keymap="ru.koi8-r"
scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866"
font8x16="cp866b-8x16"
font8x14="cp866-8x14"
font8x8="cp866-8x8"

  • 对于/etc/ttys里面的ttyv*记录，要使用 cons25r作为终端类型。

参看前面的设置控制台的例子。

14.5.1.3. 打印机设置

既然绝大多数带俄语字符的打印机遵循CP866的标准， 那么需要一个针对KOI8-R到CP866转换的特定输出过滤器。这样的一个过滤器默认的安装在 /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt。 一个支持俄语的打印机的/etc/printcap记录看起来是这样的：

lp|Russian local line printer:\
    :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\
    :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:

更多信息参考printcap(5)手册页。

14.5.1.4. MS-DOS文件系统和俄语文件名

下面的例子是在挂上MS-DOS 文件系统后，启用对俄语文件名支持的fstab(5)记录：

/dev/ad0s2      /dos/c  msdos   rw,-Wkoi2dos,-Lru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0

选项-L是选择本地化，-W是设置字符转换表。 要使用-W选项，必须在 MS-DOS 之前挂上/usr， 因为转换表位于/usr/libdata/msdosfs。更多的信息参考mount_msdos(8)手册页。

14.5.1.5. X11设置

  1. 先描述没有X的本地化设置

    Note: 俄语KOI8-R本地化方法可能在低于XFree863.3 不能工作。 XFree86 4.X现在在FreeBSD上是缺省的版本。所以这应该不是问题，除非你 是使用的老版本。

  2. 进入russian/X.language目录，然后执行如下的命令：

    # make install

    上面的port安装了KOI8-R字体的最新版本，XFree86 3.3 已经支持了一些KOI8-R字体，但这些更好。

    在你的/etc/XF86Config 文件中检查"Files"那节。 需要在其他FontPath 记录之前加入下面这几行：

    FontPath   "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc"
FontPath   "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi"
FontPath   "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi"

    如果你使用一个高分辨率的显示模式，可以交换75 dpi 和100 dpi行。

  3. 为了激活俄语"键盘"，加下面几行到XF86Config文件里面：

    对于XFree86 3.X:

    XkbLayout  "ru"
XkbOptions "grp:caps_toggle"

    对于XFree86 4.X:

    Option "XkbLayout"   "ru"
Option "XkbOptions"  "grp:caps_toggle"

    要确信XkbDisable 已经关闭（注释掉）了。

    RUS/LAT的切换用CapsLock。老的CapsLock功能可以通过 Shift+CapsLock 来模拟（只有在LAT模式的时候）。

    如果你的键盘上有``Windows''键， 注意在俄语模式中，一些非字母顺序的键会影射错误，可以在XF86Config文件中添加下面这行：

    对于XFree86 3.X:

    XkbVariant "winkeys"

    对于XFree86 4.X:

    Option "XkbVariant" "winkeys"

    Note: 俄语的XKB键盘可能不能在老版本的XFree86下工作， 更多的信息参考上面的注释。俄语XKB键盘也不能很好的工作在 非本地化应用程序下面。早期的非本地化应用程序最低限度应该调用XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL, NULL);。更多的本地化X11应用程序的信息请参考 KOI8-R for X Window。

14.5.2. 设置繁体中文

FreeBSD-Taiwan计划有一个使用很多中文ports的I18N/L10N指南在 http://freebsd.sinica.edu.tw/~ncvs/zh-l10n-tut/。 zh-L10N-tut的作者是。你也可以通过cvsup在freebsd.sinica.edu.tw下收集软件：

软件包 描述
outta-port tag=. 针对中文的Beta版Ports Collection
zh-L10N-tut tag=. 用Big5编码的繁体中文FreeBSD本地化指南
zh-doc tag=. FreeBSD的Big5繁体中文文档翻译计划

Chuan-Hsing Shen 已经使用FreeBSD-Taiwan's zh-L10N-tut创建了Chinese FreeBSD Collection (CFC)。 这些软件包和脚本文件可以在 ftp://ftp.csie.ncu.edu.tw/OS/FreeBSD/taiwan/CFC/下找到。

14.5.3. 德语本地化（适合所有的ISO 8859-1语言）

Slaven Rezic 写了一个在FreeBSD机器下如何使用日尔曼语言的德语指南。 可以在http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/umlaute/下找到。

14.5.4. 日语和韩语本地化

日语本地化请参考http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/，韩语参考 http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/。

14.5.5. 非英语的FreeBSD文档

一些FreeBSD的贡献者已经将部分FreeBSD文档翻译成了其他语言。可以通过主站或者/usr/share/doc查到。

Chapter 15. 桌面应用

Contributed by Christophe Juniet.

15.1. 概要

FreeBSD能够运行相当多桌面应用程序, 象浏览器和字处理软件. 这些程序大部分都有package或者能从ports编译. 许多新用户希望在桌面上就可以找到这样的应用程序. 本章将介绍如何轻松的从package或ports安装一些常见的桌面应用程序.

需要注意的是从ports安装意味着要编译源码. 根据编译的ports和电脑速度的不同,这也许需要花费相当长的时间.若是你觉得编译源码太过于花费时间的话, 大部分的ports都有预先编译好的版本可以安装.

因为FreeBSD兼容Linux二进制的特性, 许多原本为Linux开发的程序都可以直接用在你的桌面. 在安装任何的Linux应用程序之前,强烈的推荐你阅读Chapter 22. 当你在寻找特定的ports时,比如使用whereis(1)要记得许多利用Linux二进制兼容特性的ports都以``linux-''开头. 在下面的介绍中, 都假设安装Linux应用程序前已经开启了Linux二进制兼容功能.

本章涵盖以下种类应用程序:

  • 浏览器(例如Mozilla, Netscape, Opera)

  • 办公,图象处理 (例如 KOffice, AbiWord, The GIMP, OpenOffice.org)

  • 文档查看(例如Acrobat Reader®, gv, Xpdf, GQview)

  • 财务 (例如 GnuCash, Gnumeric, Abacus)

阅读这章之前, 你应该:

  • 知道如何安装额外的第三方软件(Chapter 4).

  • 知道如何安装Linux软件(Chapter 22).

想要获得更多的有关多媒体环境的信息, 阅读 Chapter 16. 如果你想要建立和使用电子邮件, 请参考Chapter 20.

15.2. 浏览器

FreeBSD并没有预先安装特定的浏览器. 然而, 在ports的目录www有许多浏览器可以安装. 如果你没有时间一一编译它们(有些时候这可能需要花费相当长的时间) 大部分都有package可用.

KDE 和 GNOME 已经提供HTML浏览器. 请参考Section 5.7得到更多完整的有关设定这些桌面环境的信息.

如果你想要寻找小型的浏览器, 你可以在 www/dillo, www/links, 或 www/w3m试试看.

这一节涉及如下程序:

程序名称 资源需求 安装时间 主要依赖
Mozilla 多 大量时间和空间 Gtk+
Netscape 多 轻松 兼容Linux Binary
Opera 少 轻松 FreeBSD 版本: 无. Linux 版本:Linux二进制兼容, linux-openmotif

15.2.1. Mozilla

Mozilla 也许是FreeBSD桌面上最合适的浏览器了. 它新颖稳定, 且完整的移植到了FreeBSD. 拥有非常合乎标准的HTML支持. 它也能处理邮件和阅读新闻组. 假如你打算做一个自己的主页的话,它甚至提供一个HTML编辑器. Netscape的使用者可能觉得它和Communicator 非常相似, 两者有些部分实际上是相通的.

在CPU速度低于233MHz或者内存少于64MB的老式电脑, Mozilla 会占用相当多资源而难以使用. 你也许可以试试Opera浏览器, 本章稍后将会介绍它.

也许基于某种原因,你不能或者不想编译Mozilla, FreeBSD GNOME 小组已经为你制作好了package. 只需要通过网络安装它:

# pkg_add -r mozilla

如果没package可用,而你又有足够的时间和磁盘空间, 你可以获取 Mozilla的源码来编译并安装它到你的系统上.执行以下指令既可:

# cd /usr/ports/www/mozilla
# make install clean

Mozilla需要root权限执行chrom注册来确定正确的初始化. 然而, 如果你想要一些额外的插件比如象mouse gestures, 你必须以root权限执行Mozilla以便正确的安装.

一旦你完成了Mozilla安装, 你就再也不需要 root权限了. 你可以用如下方式执行 Mozilla:

% mozilla

也可以用如下方式直接运行电子邮件和新闻阅读:

% mozilla -mail

15.2.2. Mozilla, Java™, 和 Macromedia® Flash™

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

安装Mozilla很简单, 但是安装Mozilla的额外支持比如象Java™和Macromedia® Flash™ 就会消耗很多时间和磁盘空间.

第一件事就是使用Mozilla下载要安装的文件. 让你的浏览器连接到http://www.sun.com/software/java2/download.html在他们的页面上建立一个帐户. 记得要保存用户名和密码,也许以后会用的着它. 下载j2sdk-1_3_1-src.tar.gz文件到/usr/ports/distfiles/位置,因为port不会自动的下载它. 这是因为许可证的限制. 然后从http://java.sun.com/webapps/download/Display?BundleId=7905下载``java 环境''. 它的文件名是j2sdk-1_3_1_08-linux-i586.bin比较大(大约是25MB!). 象前边一样, 这个文件必须放到/usr/ports/distfiles/. 最后下载``java patchkit''它在这里可以找到http://www.eyesbeyond.com/freebsddom/java/ 然后把它放在/usr/ports/distfiles/.

用标准的make install clean安装java/jdk13并且接着安装www/flashpluginwrapperport. 这个port需要emulators/linux_base这个庞大的port. 虽然有其它的Flash插件存在,然而他们对我来说却不能用.

如果Mozilla还没有安装,安装www/mozilla port.

现在用如下方式复制Flash插件:

# cp /usr/local/lib/flash/libflashplayer.so \
    /usr/X11R6/lib/browser_plugins/libflashplayer_linux.so

# cp /usr/local/lib/flash/ShockwaveFlash.class \
    /usr/X11R6/lib/browser_plugins/

Note: 如果你正使用www/mozilla-devel, 目录可能会有所不同.

现在在Mozilla的起始脚本/usr/X11R6/bin/mozilla的最上面(在#!/bin/sh之下)加上以下的几行:

LD_PRELOAD=/usr/local/lib/libflashplayer.so.1
export LD_PRELOAD

这将会启用Flash插件.

现在只要如下启动Mozilla:

% mozilla &

并且从Help菜单选取About Plug-ins 选项,所有可用的插件列表就会出现. Java和 Shockwave® Flash 应该都会被列出.

15.2.3. Netscape®

ports collection里包含数个版本的Netscape浏览器. 因为FreeBSD 版本包含有一个严重的安全问题, 强烈建议不要安装它们. 作为替代, 使用最近的Linux 或者其它UNIX版本.

最新的稳定版的Netscape 浏览器是Netscape 7. 它可以从ports collection安装:

# cd /usr/ports/www/netscape7
# make install clean

在French, German, 和Japanese目录下,也有本地化过的版本.

Caution不推荐你使用Netscape 4.x版本,因为它已经不适应当今的标准. 然而, Netscape 7.x和最新的版本只可以使用在i386平台.

15.2.4. Opera

Opera是一个快速,拥有许多特性, 和标准兼容的浏览器. 它有两个版本:``native''FreeBSD版本和一个可运行在Linux模拟器下的版本.对于每个操作系统, 它都有一个免费的但是有广告和一个没有广告但是必须向Opera web site付费的版本.

要使用Opera的FreeBSD版本来浏览网页,安装以下的package:

# pkg_add -r opera

有些FTP站点没有所有版本的package, 你也可以通过ports collection来安装:

# cd /usr/ports/www/opera # make install clean

要安装Linux版本的 Opera,将上面例子中的opera 替换为linux-opera. Linux版本在某些情况下非常有用,象是使用只有Linux版本的插件, 例如Adobe Acrobat Reader. 不然的话在其它方面, FreeBSD和Linux版本是完全一样的.

15.3. 办公,图象处理

当需要进行办公,或者进行图象处理, 新用户通常都会找一些好用的办公套件或者字处理软件. 目前有一些桌面环境比如象 KDE已经提供了办公套件. FreeBSD提供所有的要求,桌面环境也不例外.

这节涉及如下程序:

软件名称 资源需求 安装时间 主要依赖
KOffice 少 多 KDE
AbiWord 少 少 Gtk+ 或 GNOME
The Gimp 少 长 Gtk+
OpenOffice.org 多 长 GCC 3.1, JDK™ 1.3, Mozilla

15.3.1. KOffice

KDE社区提供了一套办公套件,它能用在桌面环境. 它包含四个标准的组件,这些组件可以在其它办公套件中找到. KWord 是字处理程序, KSpread 是电子表格程序, KPresenter 是演示文档制作管理程序, Kontour是矢量绘图软件.

安装最新的 KOffice之前,先确定你是否安装了最新版的KDE.

使用package来安装KOffice,安装细节如下:

# pkg_add -r koffice

如果没有可用的package,你可以使用ports collection安装. 安装KDE3的KOffice 版本,如下:

# cd /usr/ports/editors/koffice-kde3
# make install clean

15.3.2. AbiWord

AbiWord 是一个免费的字处理程序,它看起来和Microsoft Word的感觉很相似. 它适合用来打印文件, 信涵, 报告, 备忘录等等, 它非常快且包含许多特性,和非常容易使用.

AbiWord可以导入或输出很多文件格式, 包括一些象Microsoft.doc格式的文件.

AbiWord也有package的安装方式. 你可以用以下方法安装:

# pkg_add -r AbiWord-gnome

如果没有可用的package,它也可以从ports collection编译. ports collection 应该是最新的. 它的安装方式如下:

# cd /usr/ports/editors/AbiWord
# make install clean

15.3.3. The GIMP

对图象的编辑或者加工, The GIMP是一个非常精通图象处理的软件.它可以被用来当作简单的绘图程序或者一个专业的照片处理套件. 它支持大量的插件和具有脚本界面的特性. The GIMP可以读写众多的文件格式. 它支持扫描仪和手写板.

你可以用下列命令安装:

# pkg_add -r gimp

如果你在FTP站点没有找到这个package, 你也可以使用ports collection的方法安装. ports的 graphics 目录也包含有The Gimp 手册. 以下是安装它们的方法:

# cd /usr/ports/graphics/gimp1
# make install clean # cd /usr/ports/graphics/gimp-manual-pdf
# make install clean

Note: ports中的 graphics 目录也有开发中的The GIMP版本 graphics/gimp-devel. The Gimp 手册的HTML和PostScript版本在 graphics/gimp-manual-html和 graphics/gimp-manual-ps.

15.3.4. OpenOffice.org

OpenOffice.org 包括一套完整的办公套件: 一个字处理程序, 一个电子表格程序, 一个演示文档管理程序,和一个绘图程序. 它和其它的办公套件的特征非常相似, 它可以导入输出不同的流行的文件格式. 它包括一些不同的语言界面, 拼写检查和字典.

OpenOffice.org的字处理程序使用XML文件格式使它增加了可移植性和灵活性. 电子表格程序支持宏语言和使用外来的数据库界面. OpenOffice.org已经可以平稳的运行在Windows, Solaris™, Linux, FreeBSD, 和 Mac OS X等各种操作系统下. 更多的有关OpenOffice.org的信息你可以在 OpenOffice网页找到. 对于特定的FreeBSD版本的信息, 你可以在直接在FreeBSD OpenOffice 版本移植小组的页面下载.

安装OpenOffice.org,方法如下 :

# pkg_add -r openoffice

一旦package被安装, 你必须运行setup程序并且选择一个标准的工作站设置.运行下面的命令来使用 OpenOffice.org:

% openoffice-setup

如果没有可用的OpenOffice.orgpackage, 你仍旧可以选择编译port. 然而, 你必须记住它的要求以及大量的磁盘空间和相当长的时间编译.

# cd /usr/ports/editors/openoffice
# make install clean

一旦这个完成, 运行 OpenOffice.orgsetup设置程序并且选择一个 标准的工作站设置 如下:

% cd /usr/ports/editors/openoffice
% make install-user

如果你想要使用一个本地化的版本, 有如下一些ports可用:

语言 Port
阿拉伯语 editors/openoffice-ar
丹麦语 editors/openoffice-dk
西班牙语 editors/openoffice-es
希腊语 editors/openoffice-gr
意大利语 editors/openoffice-it
荷兰语 editors/openoffice-nl
瑞典语 editors/openoffice-se
土耳其语 editors/openoffice-tr
法语 french/openoffice
德语 german/openoffice
日语 japanese/openoffice
韩国语 korean/openoffice
波兰语 polish/openoffice
葡萄牙语 portuguese/openoffice
俄语 russian/openoffice

15.4. 文档查看器

一些新的文档格式近来得到流行.它们所需要的标准查看器可能不一定在系统内 . 在本节我们将了解如何安装它们.

这节涵盖如下应用程序:

软件名称 资源需求 安装时间 主要依赖
Acrobat Reader 少 少 Linux二进制兼容
gv 少 少 Xaw3d
Xpdf 少 少 FreeType
GQview 少 少 Gtk+ 或 GNOME

15.4.1. Acrobat Reader®

现在许多文档都用PDF格式, 根据``轻便小巧文档格式''的定义. 一个被建议使用的查看器是 Acrobat Reader, 由Adobe所发行的Linux版本. 因为FreeBSD能够运行Linux二进制文件, 所以它也可以用在FreeBSD中.

安装Acrobat Reader 5 package, 如下:

# pkg_add -r acroread5

通常, 如果package不可用或者你想要一个最新的版本, 你可以用ports collection来安装:

# cd /usr/ports/print/acroread5
# make install clean

Note: Acrobat Reader 有几个不同的版本可用. 在写这个的同时它们已经有如下版本: print/acroread (version 3.0.2), print/acroread4 (version 4.0.5), 和 print/acroread5 (version 5.0.6). 它们不全是都有packag给你现在版本的FreeBSD使用. ports collection总是包含最新的版本.

15.4.2. gv

gv 是PostScript 和PDF文件格式查看器. 它源自ghostview 因为使用Xaw3d 函数库让它看起来更美观. 它很快而且界面很干净. gv 有很多特性比如象纸张大小, 刻度, 或者抗锯齿. 大部分操作都可以用键盘或鼠标完成.

安装gvpackage,如下:

# pkg_add -r gv

如果你没有可用的package, 你可以使用ports collection安装:

# cd /usr/ports/print/gv # make install clean

15.4.3. Xpdf

如果你想要一个小型的FreeBSD PDF查看器, Xpdf 是一个小巧并且高效的查看器. 它只需要很少的资源而且非常稳定. 它使用标准的X字体并且不需要Motif 或者其它的X toolkit.

安装Xpdf package,使用如下命令:

# pkg_add -r xpdf

如果package不可用或者你宁愿使用ports collection, 如下:

# cd /usr/ports/graphics/xpdf
# make install clean

一旦安装完成, 你就可以启动 Xpdf并且使用鼠标右键来使用菜单.

15.4.4. GQview

GQview 是一个图片管理器. 你可以单击鼠标来观看一个文件, 开启一个外部编辑器 , 使用预览和更多的功能. 它也有幻灯片播放模式和一些基本的文件操作. 你可以管理采集的图片并且很容易找到重复的. GQview 可以全屏幕观看并且支持国际化.

如果你想要安装 GQview package, 如下:

# pkg_add -r gqview

如果你没有可用的package或者你宁愿使用ports collection, 如下:

# cd /usr/ports/graphics/gqview
# make install clean

15.5. 财务

假如, 基于任何的理由,你想要在FreeBSD Desktop管理你个人的财政, 有一些强大并且易于使用的软件可以被你选择安装. 它们中的一些与流行的文件格式兼容象 Quicken® 或 Excel 文件.

本节涵盖如下软件:

软件名称 资源需求 安装时间 主要依赖
GnuCash 少 长 GNOME
Gnumeric 少 长 GNOME
Abacus 少 少 Tcl/Tk

15.5.1. GnuCash

GnuCash是 GNOME努力提供容易使用且功能强大的软件给最终用户的一个部分. 使用 GnuCash, 你可以关注你的收入和开支, 你的银行帐户,或者你的股票. 它的界面特性看起来非常的专业.

GnuCash 提供一个智能化的注册,帐户分级系统 , 很多键盘快捷方式和自动完成方式. 它能分开一个单个的处理到几个详细的部分. GnuCash 能导入和合并 Quicken QIF文件格式. 它也支持大部分的国际日期和流行的格式.

安装GnuCash到你的系统, 如下:

# pkg_add -r gnucash

如果package不可用,你可以使用ports collection安装:

# cd /usr/ports/finance/gnucash
# make install clean

15.5.2. Gnumeric

Gnumeric 是一个电子表格程序, GNOME 桌面环境的一部分. It features convenient automatic ``guessing'' of user input according to the cell format and an autofill system for many sequences. 它能导入一些流行的文件格式比如象,Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, 或 Quattro Pro. Gnumeric 凭借math/guppi支持图表. 它有大量的嵌入函数和允许所有通常比如象,数字,货币,日期,时间等等的一些单元格式.

安装Gnumericpackage, 如下:

# pkg_add -r gnumeric

如果package不可用, 你可以使用ports collection安装:

# cd /usr/ports/math/gnumeric
# make install clean

15.5.3. Abacus

Abacus 是一个小巧易用的电子表格程序. 它包含许多嵌入函数在一些领域如,统计学,财务和数学方面很有帮助. 它能导入和输出Excel 文件格式. Abacus 可以产生PostScript 输出.

安装Abacuspackage, 如下:

# pkg_add -r abacus

如果package不可用,你可以使用ports collection安装:

# cd /usr/ports/deskutils/abacus
# make install clean

15.6. 总结

当FreeBSD因为它的效能和稳定而在ISP之间流行, 它也可以完全应用在桌面环境. 拥有数以千计的 packages 或者 ports, 你可以为你的需要建立完美的桌面环境.

一旦你完成了你的桌面环境的安装, 你可能想要进一步了解 misc/instant-workstation. ``meta-port'' 允许你为一个工作站建立一个定制的ports设置. 你可以编辑/usr/ports/misc/instant-workstation/Makefile定制它. 接着是缺省添加和删除ports的语法, 和使用通常的步骤建立它. 最后, 你将能建立一个适合你自己桌面的大的package和在你的其它的工作站上安装它!

下面是本章涉及到的所有的软件的快速回顾:

软件名称 Package名称 Ports名称
Mozilla mozilla www/mozilla
Netscape linux-netscape7 www/netscape7
Opera linux-opera www/linux-opera
KOffice koffice-kde3 editors/koffice-kde3
AbiWord AbiWord-gnome editors/AbiWord
The GIMP gimp graphics/gimp1
OpenOffice.org openoffice editors/openoffice
Acrobat Reader acroread5 print/acroread5
gv gv print/gv
Xpdf xpdf graphics/xpdf
GQview gqview graphics/gqview
GnuCash gnucash finance/gnucash
Gnumeric gnumeric math/gnumeric
Abacus abacus deskutils/abacus

Chapter 16. 多媒体

编辑： Ross Lippert. 中文翻译： 张 雪平.

16.1. 概要

FreeBSD广泛地支持各种声卡，让你可以从容地欣赏来自你的计算机的高保真输出。包括了录制和播放MP3、WAV和Ogg Vorbis等许多种格式声音的能力。“FreeBSD Ports 集” 同时也包括了许多的应用程序，让你可以录音、增加声音效果以及控制附加的MIDI设备。

要是乐于动手，FreeBSD也能支持播放一般的视频文件和DVD文件。可以对各种视频媒体进行编码、转换和播放的应用程序的数目并不比处理声音的程序少。例如，到写这章这止，在“FreeBSD Ports 集”并没有一个好的再编码程序，象audio/sox一样，可以在两个编码格式这间进行转换。但是，在这个领域，软件的前景是快速变化不定的。

本单将描述配置声卡的几个关键的步骤。在XFree86 (Chapter 5)的配置和安装安装里已经考虑到了你显卡的问题，但要想有更好的播放效果，这里要仍有一关键性的东西。

读了本章后，你将知道：

  • 如何配置系统识别声卡。

  • 运用样本程序去测试声卡工作的方法。

  • 如何排除声卡安装中的问题。

  • 如何播放和编码MP3以及其它格式的音频。

  • 视频是怎样被XFree86支持的。

  • 哪些好的视频播放/压缩“ports”。

  • 如何播放DVD、 .mpg 和 .avi 文件。

  • 如何从CD和DVD中提取文件。

  • 怎样配置电视卡。

在读本章这前，你应该：

  • 知道如何配置、安装一个新的内核 (Chapter 9)

在视频部份，假定已经安装了XFree86 4.X (x11/XFree86-4)。在XFree86 3.X下可能也工作，但本章所述的内容并没有在它上边测试。如果你发现这些内容在XFree86 3.X下也工作的话，敬请通知我们。

Warning用mount(8) 命令去装载CD光盘，至少会产生一个错误，更糟的会产生内核震荡(kernel panic)。这种媒体所用的编码与通常的ISO文件系统是不同的。

16.2. 安装声卡

贡献者 Moses Moore.

16.2.1. 选择正确的设备

在开始之前，你应该清楚声卡类型、所用的芯片以及它是PCI还是ISA卡。FreeBSD支持大量的PCI卡和ISA卡。如果你在下面的列表中没有找到你的声卡类型，那么你可以去pcm(4)看看。虽然下面的列表不全，不过也包括大部份最常见的声卡类型。

  • Crystal 4237, 4236, 4232, 4231

  • Yamaha OPL-SAx

  • OPTi931

  • Ensoniq AudioPCI 1370/1371

  • ESS Solo-1/1E

  • NeoMagic 256AV/ZX

  • SoundBlaster® Pro, 16, 32, AWE64, AWE128, Live

  • Creative ViBRA16

  • Advanced Asound 100, 110, and Logic ALS120

  • ES 1868, 1869, 1879, 1888

  • Gravis UltraSound

  • Aureal Vortex 1 or 2

要使用声卡，你就应装载正确的驱动程序。完成的方式有两种：最简单的是使用命令kldload(8)来装载一个内核模块，在命令行输入

# kldload snd_emu10k1.ko

或者在文件/boot/loader.conf里加入一行，内容如下

snd_emu10k1_load="YES"

上边实例用于Creative SoundBlaster Live!声卡。其它可装载的模块列在文件/boot/defaults/loader.conf里边。

另外，你也可以把支持你声卡的代码静态地编译到内核里去。下面的部份就采用这种方式支持硬件给出提示。关于重新编译内核，请参考Chapter 9。

16.2.1.1. Creative, Advance, and ESS 声卡

如果你有上面的某一种声卡的话，就请增加：

device pcm

到内核配置文件里去。如果你的是即插即用的ISA卡，就请再加入：

device sbc

对于非即插即用的ISA卡，加入：

device pcm
device sbc0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15

到内核配置文件里去。上面给出的设置都是默认的。你可能要改变IRQ或其它的设置来符合你的声卡。参看sbc(4)页面获取更多信息。

Note: Sound Blaster Live声卡在FreeBSD 4.0以下没有补丁是不被支持的，而关于补丁本章并不涉及。因此如果你要用这种声卡的话，建议你升级系统到最新的稳定版（STABLE）。

16.2.1.2. Gravis UltraSound Cards

如果是即插即用的ISA卡，请增加：

device pcm
device gusc

到内核配置文件里去。如果是即插即用的ISA卡，就请增加：

device pcm
device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x13

到内核配置文件里去。你可能要改变IRQ或其它的设置来符合你的声卡。参看gusc(4) 页面获取更多信息。

16.2.1.3. Crystal Sound Cards

对于Crystal声卡，请增加：

device pcm
device csa

到内核配置文件里去。

16.2.1.4. 一般性支持

如果是即插即用的ISA卡或PCI卡，请增加：

device pcm

到内核配置文件里去。如果是非即插即用的ISA卡并且又没有桥路驱动器（bridge driver）的话，就请增加：

device pcm0 at isa? irq 10 drq 1 flags 0x0

到内核配置文件里去。你可能要改变IRQ或其它的设置来符合你的声卡。

16.2.1.5. 集成声卡

一些集成声卡的计算机可能需要在内核配置文件中做如下设置：

options PNPBIOS

Note: 如果你正在运行FreeBSD 5.0 或更新版本，那么就不需要PNPBIOS选项了。这个选项已经被移除，而其功能现在是一直是有效的。

16.2.2. 创建和测试设备结点

重启后，登入系统，检查文件/var/run/dmesg.boot中的设备，如下所示：

# grep pcm /var/run/dmesg.boot
pcm0: <SB16 DSP 4.11> on sbc0

输出结果可能与你的系统有所不同。如果没有pcm设备显示正常，则说明先前什么地方出了错。如果真的出了错，就请再回到内核配置文件中检查一下，确信是否选对了设备。一般性的问题列在Section 16.2.2.1中。

Note: 如果你用的是FreeBSD 5.0或更新，你可以放心略过剩下部份不看。这些版本都使用了devfs(5)来自动创建设备结点。

如果先前的命令返回pcm0，你必须以用户root运行下边的命令：

# cd /dev
# sh MAKEDEV snd0

如果先前的命令返回pcm1，执行上边同样的命令，记得把snd0换成snd1。

Note: 上边的命令不会创建/dev/snd设备！

MAKEDEV能创建一组设备结点，其中包括：

设备 描述
/dev/audio 与Sparc®兼容的音频设备
/dev/dsp 数字声音设备
/dev/dspW 和/dev/dsp一样，只是采样率是16位（bit）
/dev/midi 存取Raw和midi设备
/dev/mixer 控制端口混音设备
/dev/music 2阶音序接口
/dev/sequencer 音序设备
/dev/pss 可编程设备接口

如果一切顺利，你的声卡应该能发声了。如果你的CD-ROM或者DVD-ROM光驱连接到了声卡，你现在就可以放一张CD到光驱里使用cdcontrol(1)命令来播放了：

% cdcontrol -f /dev/acd0c play 1

程序各不相同，如audio/workman提供了很好的界面。或许你会想安装一个像audio/mpg123一样的程序来听MP3。

16.2.2.1. 常见问题

错误信息 解决方法
``unsupported subdevice XX''

一个或多个设备结点没有正确地建立。重复上面的步骤。
``sb_dspwr(XX) timed out''

I/O端口没有设置正确。
``bad irq XX''

IRQ设置不正确。确信设定的IRQ和声卡的IRQ是一样的。
``xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory''

没有足够的内存空间供设置使用。
``xxx: can't open /dev/dsp!''

使用命令fstat | grep dsp进行检查是否有其它的程序打开了设备。值得注意的是esound和KDE提供的声卡支持造成麻烦。

16.2.3. 利用多个声源

贡献者Munish Chopra.

同时有多个声源的声音在播放，这是完全可能的，例如当esound或者artsd不支持与其它程序共享音频设备时。

FreeBSD可以通过虚拟声道(Virtual Sound Channels)来达到，具体设置用工具sysctl(8)。虚拟的声道可以能过在内核里混合声音来混合声卡里播放的声道。

使用两条sysctl命令来设置虚拟声道的数目。如果你是root用户，照此做：

# sysctl hw.snd.pcm0.vchans=4
# sysctl hw.snd.maxautovchans=4

上面的实例设定了4个虚拟声道，这也是实际上所使用的数目。hw.snd.pcm0.vchans 是pcm0的虚拟声道数，一当链接上一个设备它就可配置了。 hw.snd.maxautovchans是分配给新的音频设备的虚拟声道数，此时这个设备要用kldload(8)来链接。因为pcm模块可以独立装载许多硬件驱动程序，因此hw.snd.maxautovchans也就可以存储分配给以后链接到的设备的虚拟声道数。

如果不使用devfs(5)，你就不得不把你的应用程序指向/dev/dsp0.x，这里x为0到3，因为在上面的例子里hw.snd.pcm.0.vchans被设为了4。在使用devfs(5)的系统里，上边那些会自动分配给用户。

16.3. MP3音频

贡献者Chern Lee.

MP3 (MPEG Layer 3 Audio)达到过CD音质的效果，FreeBSD工作站没理由会缺少这样的好东东。

16.3.1. MP3播放器

到目前为止，最为流行的XFree86 MP3 播放器是XMMS (X 多媒体系统)。Winamp肤面可以应用到XMMS上，因为它与Nullsoft's Winamp的GUI（图形界面）几乎是相同的。XMMS 也支持插件功能

XMMS可以从multimedia/xmms port 或 package(“包”)里安装得到。

XMMS'的界面很直观，有播放列表、图表化的均衡器等等。那些Winamp家族的人会发现使用XMMS很简单。

audio/mpg123 port是一个可选用的命令行MP3播放器。

mpg123可以在命令行指定音频设备和MP3文件执行，如下所示：

# mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3
High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layer 1, 2 and 3.
Version 0.59r (1999/Jun/15). Written and copyrights by Michael Hipp.
Uses code from various people. See 'README' for more!
THIS SOFTWARE COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY! USE AT YOUR OWN RISK!





Playing MPEG stream from Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 ...
MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo

/dev/dsp1.0应该换成dsp设备进入你的系统。

16.3.2. 抓取CD音轨

在对CD或CD音轨编码成MP3之前，CD上的音频数据应先抓到硬盘里。这个可以通过复制原始的CDDA(CD数字音频)数据成为波形(WAV)文件。

工具cdda2wav是sysutils/cdrtools套件的一部份，可用来从CD中获取音频及其相关信息。

把CD放到光驱里，下面的命令可以完成(作为 root用户)把整张CD分割成单个（每个音轨）的WAV文件：/para>

# cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -B


cdda2wav支持ATAPI (IDE)光驱。从IDE光驱中抓取音轨，需要用设备名称代替SCSI的单元号。例如，想从IDE光驱中抓取第7道音轨：

# cdda2wav -D /dev/acd0a -t 7

参数-D 0,1,0表示SCSI设备0,1,0，与命令cdrecord -scanbus的输出相对应。

抓取单轨，要使用选项-t，如下所示：

# cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7

这个实例用于抓取第七个音轨。要抓取一定范围的音轨，如从1到7：

# cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7

利用dd(1)也可以从ATAPI光驱中抓取音轨，从Section 12.5.5可以了解更多。

16.3.3. 编码MP3

现今，可选的MP3编码器是lame。 Lame可以从ports树里的audio/lame处找到。

利用抓取的WAV文件，下边的命令就可以把audio01.wav转换成audio01.mp3：

# lame -h -b 128 \
--tt "Foo Song Title" \
--ta "FooBar Artist" \
--tl "FooBar Album" \
--ty "2001" \
--tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo" \
--tg "Genre" \
audio01.wav audio01.mp3

128 千位是标准的MP3位率(bitrate)。许多人可能喜欢更高的品质像160或192。更高的位率，会使MP3占用更多的磁盘空间--只是音质会更高。选项 -h 控制 ``高品质但低速度(higher quality but a little slower)'' 模式的开关。选项 --t 表示把 ID3 标签--通常包含了歌曲的信息 ，植入到MP3文件里。其它的编码选项可以查询lame的帮助页(man page)。

16.3.4. 解码MP3

要把MP3歌曲刻录成音乐CD，就需要把它转换成非压缩的波形(WAV)格式。XMMS 和 mpg123 都支持把MP3输出成非压缩格式文件。

在XMMS中输出到磁盘：

  1. 启动 XMMS.

  2. 在窗口里右击鼠标，弹出XMMS菜单。

  3. 在选项(Options)里选择设定(Preference)。

  4. 改变输出插件成``写磁盘插件(Disk Writer Plugin)''。

  5. 按配置(Configure)。

  6. 输入或选择一个目录用于存放解压的文件。

  7. 象平常一样，把MP3文件装入到XMMS里边，把音量调节到100%并且关掉EQ设定。

  8. 按一下播放(Play) -- XMMS 如同在播放mp3一样，只是听不到声音。实际上是在播放mp3到一个文件里。

  9. 要想再听MP3歌曲，记得把默认的输出插件设回原来的值。

用mpg123进行标准输出：

  1. 执行 mpg123 -s audio01.mp3 > audio01.pcm

XMMS输出的文件是波形(WAV)格式，而mpg123 则把MP3转换成原始的PCM(raw PCM)音频数据。两种格式都支持用cdrecord刻录成音乐CD。使用burncd(8)你就必须使用原始的PCM。如果选择波形格式，就要注意在每道开始时的一小点杂音，为段声音是波形文件的头部份--可以使用工具SoX来轻松去除。 SoX可从audio/sox port 或包(package)中安装得到：

% sox -t wav -r 44100 -s -w -c 2 track.wav track.raw

阅读Section 12.5 这部份可以了解到更多在FreeBSD里刻盘的信息。

16.4. 视频回放

贡献者Ross Lippert.

视频回放是个很新并且迅速发展中的应用领域。一定要有耐心，因为不是所有的事情都象处音频那么顺利。

在开始之前，你要了解显卡的类型以及它所用的芯片的类型。虽然XFree86 支持大量的显卡，但能达到好的回放效果的却寥寥无几。在X11运行时，你可以使用命令 xdpyinfo(1)，获得使用你的显卡的X服务器(X server)所支持的扩展列表。

为了评估各种播放器和设置，你须要有一小段用作测试的MPEG文件。由于一些DVD播放器会默认地在 /dev/dvd里去找DVD文件，因此，你会发样建立符号链接到恰当的设备会很有用：

# ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/dvd
# ln -sf /dev/racd0c /dev/rdvd

在使用了devfs(5)的FreeBSD 5.X里， 有一个略微不同的推荐链接集：

# ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/dvd
# ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/rdvd

注意：由于devfs(5)本身的原因，象这样手工建立的链接在重启后将不会存在。想要无论什么时候你启动系统都能自动建立符号链接，那就把下边这行加到/etc/devfs.conf里边：

link acd0 dvd
link acd0 rdvd

另外，DVD解密要求调用专用的DVD-ROM函数，要求把许可定到DVD设备里。

一些未定的ports(ports discussed)要正确地建立(build)有赖于下列内核的选项设置。在试图建立之前，把这些选项增加到内核配置文件中去，建立新的内核，重启系统：

option CPU_ENABLE_SSE
option USER_LDT

Note: option USER_LDT 在FreeBSD 5.X里并不存在。

为了增强用于共享内存的X11接口，推荐增加一些sysctl(8) 参数的值：

kern.ipc.shmmax=67108864
kern.ipc.shmall=32768

16.4.1. 测定视频的性能

在X11下有几种可以显示图像的方式。倒底哪个能工作很大程序上依赖于硬件。首先，下边描述的每一种方法在不同的硬件上都会有不同的品质。其次，在X11里的图像显示近来引起普遍的关注，随着 XFree86 的每一个版本，都会有很大的突破。

常见图像接口列表：

  1. X11: 一般性的使用共享内存的X11输出。

  2. XVideo: 一种X11接口扩展，支持任何X11图像的可拖拉。

  3. SDL: 简单直接媒体层。

  4. DGA: 直接图片存取。

  5. SVGAlib: 低层次掌控图片层。

16.4.1.1. XVideo

XFree86 4.X有种扩展叫做XVideo (或称Xvideo, Xv, xv) ，它可以通过一个特殊的加速器直接把图像显示在可拖拉的对象里。即使在底端机器里（例如我的PIII 400 Mhz膝上电脑），这个扩展也提供了很好的播放质量。可惜的是支持这种功能的卡中找去找来就只有目前的几种：

  1. 3DFX Voodoo 3

  2. Intel i810 and i815

  3. 部份 S3 芯片组(such as Savage/IX and Savage/MX)

即使你的显卡不在其中，你也不要失望。XFree86 4.X 每一次出品都会增加新的xv能力 [11]. 要检查扩展功能是否在运行，可以使用命令xvinfo：

% xvinfo

如果显示结果如下，那你的显卡就支持XVideo：

X-Video Extension version 2.2
screen #0
  Adaptor #0: "Savage Streams Engine"
    number of ports: 1
    port base: 43
    operations supported: PutImage
    supported visuals:
      depth 16, visualID 0x22
      depth 16, visualID 0x23
    number of attributes: 5
      "XV_COLORKEY" (range 0 to 16777215)
              client settable attribute
              client gettable attribute (current value is 2110)
      "XV_BRIGHTNESS" (range -128 to 127)
              client settable attribute
              client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
      "XV_CONTRAST" (range 0 to 255)
              client settable attribute
              client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
      "XV_SATURATION" (range 0 to 255)
              client settable attribute
              client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
      "XV_HUE" (range -180 to 180)
              client settable attribute
              client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
    maximum XvImage size: 1024 x 1024
    Number of image formats: 7
      id: 0x32595559 (YUY2)
        guid: 59555932-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
        bits per pixel: 16
        number of planes: 1
        type: YUV (packed)
      id: 0x32315659 (YV12)
        guid: 59563132-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
        bits per pixel: 12
        number of planes: 3
        type: YUV (planar)
      id: 0x30323449 (I420)
        guid: 49343230-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
        bits per pixel: 12
        number of planes: 3
        type: YUV (planar)
      id: 0x36315652 (RV16)
        guid: 52563135-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
        bits per pixel: 16
        number of planes: 1
        type: RGB (packed)
        depth: 0
        red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x3e0, 0x7c00
      id: 0x35315652 (RV15)
        guid: 52563136-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
        bits per pixel: 16
        number of planes: 1
        type: RGB (packed)
        depth: 0
        red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x7e0, 0xf800
      id: 0x31313259 (Y211)
        guid: 59323131-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
        bits per pixel: 6
        number of planes: 3
        type: YUV (packed)
      id: 0x0
        guid: 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
        bits per pixel: 0
        number of planes: 0
        type: RGB (packed)
        depth: 1
        red, green, blue masks: 0x0, 0x0, 0x0

同时注意：列出来的格式(YUV2, YUV12, 等等)并不总是随着XVdieo的每一次执行而存在。没有它们可能或迷惑有些人。

如果结果看起来是这样：

X-Video Extension version 2.2
screen #0
no adaptors present

那么你的显卡可以就不支持XVideo功能。

如果你的卡不支持XVideo，则只是说明你的显示器在满足刷新图像的计算要求上存在更大的因难。尽管显卡和处理器很重要，你仍然会有个不错的显示效果。 You should probably read about ways of improving performance in the advanced reading Section 16.4.3.

16.4.1.2. 简单直接媒体层

简单直接媒体层(SDL)，原意是做为Microsoft Windows, BeOS, 和 UNIX之间的端口层，允许跨平台应用发展，更高效地利用声卡和图形卡。SDL层可以在低层访问硬件，有时这样做就比X11接口层更为高效。

关于SDL可以参考devel/sdl12

16.4.1.3. 直接图形存取

“直接图形存取”是XFree86的扩展，它允许一个程序迂回X server和直接改变帖缓冲(framebuffer)。因为它依靠一个底层的交换存储器来影响这种共享，程序必须以root来执行。

DGA扩展可以能过dga(1)来测试和衡量。在dga执行时，一当有按键被按到，它就会改变显示的颜色。按q退出。

16.4.2. Ports 和 包(Packages) 对视频的解决

这部份主要讨论在FreeBSD Ports集中提供的可用于视频回放的软件。视频回放在软件发展中是个很活跃的领域，并且各种不同程序的功能可能与这里的描述不尽相同。

首先，要弄清楚的重要一点是在FreeBSD上使用的视频程序其发展与在Linux里使用的是一样的。大部份程序都还处在β阶段。使用FreeBSD的包可能面对的问题：

  1. 一个应用程序不能播放其它程序制作的文件。

  2. 一个应用程序不能播放其自已制作的文件。

  3. 不同机上的同样的程序，各自重新建立(rebuild)了一次，播放同一个文件结果也会有不同。

  4. 一个看起来没什么的过滤器，如图像尺寸的调整，也有可能因为一个调整例程的问题变得很不象样。

  5. 应用程序频繁地留下垃圾(dumps core)。

  6. 文档如没有随着port一起安装，实际上也可以上网找到，或者去port的work目录下找。

这些程序中许多也体现了``Linux主义''。即，有些问题来自于(程序)使用的标准库存在于Linux的发行版中，或者有些是Linux内核的功能，而该程序的作者事先所假定了的是Linux内核。这些问题并不总是被prot编护人员注意到或处理过，这也就可能导致如下问题：

  1. 使用/proc/cpuinfo去检测处理器的特性。

  2. 滥用线程可能导致一个程序悬挂完成，而不是完全中止。

  3. 软件还不属于FreeBSD Ports集，而又与其它程序经常地一起使用。

现在，这些程序的开发人员也已同port的维护人员进行了联合，以减少制作port(port-ing)时出错。

16.4.2.1. MPlayer

MPlayer是近来开发的同时也正迅速发展着的一个视频播放器。MPlayer团队的目标是在Linux和其它UNIX系统中的速度和机动性能。在团队的创始人实在受不了当时可用的播放器的性能时，这个计划就开始了。有人也许会说图形接口已经成为新型设计的牺牲品。但是一但你习惯了命令行选项和按键控制方式，它就能表现得很好。

16.4.2.1.1. 创建MPlayer

MPlayer存放在multimedia/mplayer中。在创建的过程中 MPlayer要完成很多的硬件检测，最后得到一个二进制文件，这个文件不能移支其它系统里使用。 因此，要从ports里边创建时，而不要使用“包”，这点很重要。另外，还有几个选项要在make的命令行里指定。在正式创建(build)之前，要说的就这些。

# cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer
# make
You can enable additional compilation optimizations
by defining WITH_OPTIMIZED_CFLAGS
You can enable GTK GUI by defining WITH_GUI.
You can enable DVD support by defining WITH_DVD.
You can enable SVGALIB support by defining WITH_SVGALIB.
You can enable VORBIS sound support by defining WITH_VORBIS.
You can enable XAnim DLL support by defining WITH_XANIM.

如果你已经安装了x11-toolkits/gtk12，那么你就可以选用GUI了。否则，就不用这样做了。如果你想用MPlayer来播放DVD文件(很可能是CSS编码)，你就必须在此处[12]的选项里选用“DVD支持”。一些可用的选项：

# make WITH_DVD=yes WITH_SVGALIB=yes

在写这章时，MPlayer port已会创建自已的HTML文档和一个可执行的mplayer。当然也可以创建一个编码器--mencoder，它是一个可以对视频再编码的工具。修改一下Make文件(Makefile)就可以得到。这在随后的port版本中是默认的。

MPlayer的HTML文档信息很丰富。如果你发现本章关于视频硬件和接口的信息还不全面的话，MPlayer的文档会是个充分的补充。你要认真地花上一定的时间去读读MPlayer的文档，如果你正找寻关于UNIX里支持视频的信息的话。

16.4.2.1.2. 使用MPlayer

任何MPlayer用户必须在它的主目录下建立一个叫.mplayer的子目录。输入下边的内容来建立这个必须的子目录：

% cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer
% make install-user

在mplayer的手册里列出了它的命令选项。HTML文档里有更为详细的信息。这部份里，我们只是描述了很少的常见应用。

要播放一个文件，如testfile.avi，可以通过各种视频接口当中的某一个去设置-vo 选项：

% mplayer -vo xv testfile.avi

% mplayer -vo sdl testfile.avi

% mplayer -vo x11 testfile.avi

# mplayer -vo dga testfile.avi

# mplayer -vo 'sdl:dga' testfile.avi

所有这些选项都是值得一试的，因为它们各自的完成都依赖了很多的因素并且都与硬件息息相关。

要播放DVD，须要把testfile.avi替换成-dvd <N> DEVICE(设备名)，这里<N> 指要播放的主题号，DEVICE 指的是的DVD光驱(DVD-ROM)的设备结点。例如：要从/dev/dvd播放主题3：

# mplayer -vo dga -dvd 2 /dev/dvd

要停止、暂停、前进等等，可以参考设定的按键---这些可以执行mplayer -h得到或查看手册。

另外，回放的重要选项是：用于全屏模式的-fs -zoom和起辅助完成作用的-framedrop。

为了让mplayer的命令行不是太长，使用者可以通过建立一个文件.mplayer/config来设定如下默认选项：

vo=xv
fs=yes
zoom=yes

最后，mplayer可以把DVD题目(title)抓取成为.vob文件。为了从DVD中导出第二个题目，请输入：

# mplayer -dumpstream -dumpfile out.vob -dvd 2 /dev/dvd

输出文件out.vob将是MPEG并且可以被这部份描述的其它“包”利用。

16.4.2.1.3. mencoder

如果你在创建选择MPlayer里选择安装mencoder的话，你就会得到警告--它还是处于实验阶段。在使用mencoder之前，你最好还是要去HTML的文档里熟悉一下那些选项。这里有页指南，如果没有HTML文档它也没什么用。有不计其数的方式去提高质量、降底位率、改变格式和一些可能产生不同效果的技巧。这里有两个实例指导你。第一个是：

% mencoder input.avi -oac copy -ovc copy -o output.avi

不正确的命令选项组合可能使生成的文件不能被mplayer播放。因此，如果你只是想抓取文件，一定在mplayer里使用“-dumpfile”。

转换input.avi成为带有MPEG3音频编码 (要求audio/lame )的MPEG4编码：

% mencoder input.avi -oac mp3lame -lameopts br=192 \
     -ovc lavc -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vhq -o output.avi

这样就产生了可被mplayer 和 xine播放的输出。

input.avi可以换成-dvd 1 /dev/dvd ，以root用户直接运行重新编码一个DVD题目。可能不对第一次的表现并不满意，推荐你把这个主题导成文件，然后以这个文件进行处理。

16.4.2.2. xine视频播放器

xine视频播放器是一个关注范围很广的项目，它不仅看准多合一的视频解决，而且出品了一个可再用的基本库和一个可扩展插件的可执行模块。发行有“包”和port版本-- multimedia/xine。

xine播放器仍然很粗糙，但这很显然与好开头无关。实际上xine 即需要一个快速的带有快速显卡的CPU，也支持XVideo的扩展。图形界面(GUI)可以使用，但很勉强。

到写这章里，还没有可用于播放CSS编码的DVD文件的输入模块随同xine一起发行。第三方的建造(builds)里内建有这样的模块，但都不属于FreeBSD Ports 集。

与MPlayer相比，xine 为用户考虑得更多，但同时，对用户来说也少了很多有条理的控制方式。xine 播放器在XVideo接口上做得不错。

默认情况下，播放器xine启动的时后会使用图形界面。那么就可以使用菜单打开指定的文件：

% xine

另外，没有图形界面也可以使用如下命令立即打开播放文件：

% xine -g -p mymovie.avi

16.4.2.3. 使用transcode

软件transcode不是一个播放器，而是一套再编码.avi 和 .mpg 文件的工具。使用transcode，借助标准输入输出(stdin/stdout)流接口，利用命令行工具，可以合并视频文件、修复坏文件。

像MPlayer一样， transcode是个实验性软件，必须通过portmultimedia/transcode来建立。make使用了大量的选项。我推荐：

# make WITH_LIBMPEG2=yes

如果你计划安装multimedia/avifile，那么就把选项WITH_AVIFILE加到你的make命令行里，如下所示：

# make WITH_AVIFILE=yes WITH_LIBMPEG2=yes

这里有两个使用transcode进行可调整视频输出的转换实例。第一个把输出编码成openDIVX AVI文件，第二个是编码成更为小巧的MPEG格式。

% transcode -i input.vob -x vob -V -Z 320x240 \
-y opendivx -N 0x55 -o output.avi

% transcode -i input.vob -x vob -V -Z 320x240 \
-y mpeg -N 0x55 -o output.tmp
% tcmplex -o output.mpg -i output.tmp.m1v -p output.tmp.mpa -m 1

有个关于transcode的参考页，仅有很少的关于各种tc*(如 tcmplex)应用的文档，这也是安装了的。命令行选项 -h 有时也可以给出简单的使用格式的说明。

相比之下，transcode比mencoder运行起来要慢许多，但它可以制作出更多可播放的文件。例如，用transcode创建的MPEG文件众所周知可以在Windows Media® Player 和 Apple's Quicktime®里播放。

16.4.3. 进一步了解

FreeBSD里不同的视频软件包正迅速发展中。很可能在不久的将来，这里所谈到的问题都将得到解决。同时，有些人想超越FreeBSD的声/像(A/V)能力，那他们就不得不从一些FAQ和指南里学知识，并使用一些不同的应用程序。这里就给这些读者指出一些补充信息。

The MPlayer 文档是很技术性的。这些文档可以给那些希望获得关于UNIX视频高级技术的人们提供参考。MPlayer邮件列表很不喜欢没耐心阅读文档的人，如果你发现什么问题，想报告给他们--RTFM的话。

The xine HOWTO里边有一章是关于提高性能的，对所有的播放器都很适应。

最后是一些很有前途的程序，读者可以试一下：

16.5. 安装电视卡

原创： Josef El-Rayes. 改编：Marc Fonvieille.

16.5.1. 介绍

电视卡可以让你在你的计算机里观看到无线或有线电视。许多卡是通过RCA或S-video输入接收复合视频，而且有些卡还带有调频广播接收器。

FreeBSD 通过bktr(4)驱动程序，提供了对基于PCI的电视卡的支持，要求这些卡使用的是Brooktree Bt848/849/878/879 或 Conexant CN-878/Fusion 878a视频采集芯片。你还要确保这个板上带的有被支持的调谐器，参考bktr(4)手册查看所支持的调谐器列表。

16.5.2. 增加驱动程序

要使用你的卡，你就要装载bktr(4)驱动程序。这个可以通过往/boot/loader.conf里边添加下边一行来实现。象这样：

bktr_load="YES"

另外，你也可以静态地这个支持编译到内核里去，要是这样的话，就把下边几行加到内核配置里去：

device  bktr
device  iicbus
device  iicbb
device  smbus

这些附加的设备驱动程序是必须的，因为卡的各组成部分是能过一根I2C总线相互连接在一起的。然后建立安装新的内核。

一旦这个支持被加到了你的系统里，你须要重启系统。在启动过程中，你的电视卡应该显示为up(启动)，象这样：

bktr0: <BrookTree 848A> mem 0xd7000000-0xd7000fff irq 10 at device 10.0 on pci0
iicbb0: <I2C bit-banging driver> on bti2c0
iicbus0: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only
iicbus1: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only
smbus0: <System Management Bus> on bti2c0
bktr0: Pinnacle/Miro TV, Philips SECAM tuner.

当然，这些信息可能因你的硬件不同而有所区别。但是你应该能检查那个调制器是否被正确检测到了，可能要忽略一些检测到的同sysctl(8) MIB（管理系统库）和内核配置文件选项一起的参数。例如，如果你想强制使用Philips(飞利浦) SECAM制式的调谐器 ，你就应把下列行加到内核配置文件里：

options OVERRIDE_TUNER=6

或者，你直接使用sysctl(8)：

# sysctl hw.bt848.tuner=6

查看bktr(4)手册和/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES文件了解更多详细关于可用选项的资料。（如果你在FreeBSD 4.X下，就使用/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT代替 /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES。）

16.5.3. 有用的应用程序

要使用你的电视卡，你需要安装下列应用程序之一：

  • multimedia/fxtv提供“窗口电视(TV-in-a-window)”功能和图像/声音/图像采集功能。

  • multimedia/xawtv也是一款电视应用程序，功能同fxtv一样。

  • misc/alevt解码和显示Videotext/Teletext。

  • audio/xmradio，一款用于一些电视卡的调频电台调谐器的程序。

  • audio/wmtune，一款用于电台调谐器的便捷的桌面程序。

更多的程序在FreeBSD Ports Collection(Ports 集)里。

16.5.4. 问题解决

如果你的电视卡遇到了什么问题，你应该首先检查一下你的视频采集芯片和调谐器是不是真正的被bktr(4)驱动程序支持，并且是不是使用了正确的配置选项。想得到更多支持和关于你的电视卡的各种问题，你可以接触和使用freebsd-multimedia 邮件列表的压缩包。

Chapter 17. Serial Communications

17.1. Synopsis

UNIX has always had support for serial communications. In fact, the very first UNIX machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average ``terminal'' consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications.

After reading this chapter, you will know:

  • How to connect terminals to your FreeBSD system.

  • How to use a modem to dial out to remote hosts.

  • How to allow remote users to login to your system with a modem.

  • How to boot your system from a serial console.

Before reading this chapter, you should:

  • Know how to configure and install a new kernel (Chapter 9).

  • Understand UNIX permissions and processes (Chapter 3).

  • Have access to the technical manual for the serial hardware (modem or multi-port card) that you would like to use with FreeBSD.

17.2. Introduction

17.2.1. Terminology

bps

Bits per Second -- the rate at which data is transmitted

DTE

Data Terminal Equipment -- for example, your computer

DCE

Data Communications Equipment -- your modem

RS-232

EIA standard for hardware serial communications

When talking about communications data rates, this section does not use the term ``baud''. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while ``bps'' (bits per second) is the correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite as much).

17.2.2. Cables and Ports

To connect a modem or terminal to your FreeBSD system, you will need a serial port on your computer and the proper cable to connect to your serial device. If you are already familiar with your hardware and the cable it requires, you can safely skip this section.

17.2.2.1. Cables

There are several different kinds of serial cables. The two most common types for our purposes are null-modem cables and standard (``straight'') RS-232 cables. The documentation for your hardware should describe the type of cable required.

17.2.2.1.1. Null-modem Cables

A null-modem cable passes some signals, such as ``signal ground'', straight through, but switches other signals. For example, the ``send data'' pin on one end goes to the ``receive data'' pin on the other end.

If you like making your own cables, you can construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector.

Signal Pin #   Pin # Signal
SG 7 connects to 7 SG
TxD 2 connects to 3 RxD
RxD 3 connects to 2 TxD
RTS 4 connects to 5 CTS
CTS 5 connects to 4 RTS
DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR
DCD 8   6 DSR
DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR

Note: Connect ``Data Set Ready'' (DSR) and ``Data Carrier Detect'' (DCD) internally in the connector hood, and then to ``Data Terminal Ready'' (DTR) in the remote hood.

17.2.2.1.2. Standard RS-232C Cables

A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals straight-through. That is, the ``send data'' pin on one end of the cable goes to the ``send data'' pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to use to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and is also appropriate for some terminals.

17.2.2.2. Ports

Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD.

17.2.2.2.1. Kinds of Ports

Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system.

Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports.

See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works too.

17.2.2.2.2. Port Names

In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries:

  • Call-in ports are named /dev/ttydN where N is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the call-in port for terminals. Call-in ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work correctly.

  • Call-out ports are named /dev/cuaaN. You usually do not use the call-out port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the call-out port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal.

If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in MS-DOS), then you will use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If the terminal is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), use /dev/ttyd1, and so forth.

17.2.3. Kernel Configuration

FreeBSD supports four serial ports by default. In the MS-DOS world, these are known as COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4. FreeBSD currently supports ``dumb'' multiport serial interface cards, such as the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016, as well as more intelligent multi-port cards such as those made by Digiboard and Stallion Technologies. However, the default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports.

To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio.

Tip: To view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command:

# /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio'

For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages:

sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa
sio1: type 16550A
sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa
sio2: type 16550A
sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa
sio3: type 16550A

If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. For detailed information on configuring your kernel, please see Chapter 9.

The relevant device lines for your kernel configuration file would look like this, for FreeBSD 4.X:

device     sio0    at isa? port IO_COM1 irq 4
device      sio1    at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3
device      sio2    at isa? port IO_COM3 irq 5
device      sio3    at isa? port IO_COM4 irq 9

and like this, for FreeBSD 5.X:

device     sio

You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have in the case of FreeBSD 4.X; for FreeBSD 5.X you have to edit your /boot/device.hints file to configure your serial ports. Please refer to the sio(4) manual page for more information on serial ports and multiport boards configuration. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags and the syntax have changed between versions.

Note: port IO_COM1 is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines).

17.2.4. Device Special Files

Most devices in the kernel are accessed through ``device special files'', which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttydN (dial-in) and /dev/cuaaN (call-out) devices. FreeBSD also provides initialization devices (/dev/ttyidN and /dev/cuaiaN) and locking devices (/dev/ttyldN and /dev/cualaN). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use RTS/CTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages termios(4), sio(4), and stty(1) for information on the terminal settings, locking and initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively.

17.2.4.1. Making Device Special Files

Note: FreeBSD 5.0 includes the devfs(5) filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with devfs enabled then you can safely skip this section.

A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. To use MAKEDEV to make dial-up device special files for COM1 (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dial-up device special files for COM2 (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1.

MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttydN device special files, but also the /dev/cuaaN, /dev/cuaiaN, /dev/cualaN, /dev/ttyldN, and /dev/ttyidN nodes.

After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read and write on them -- you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dial-out. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient:

crw-rw----    1 uucp     dialer    28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaa1
crw-rw----    1 uucp     dialer    28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuaia1
crw-rw----    1 uucp     dialer    28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuala1

These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices.

17.2.5. Serial Port Configuration

The ttydN (or cuaaN) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command

# stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1

When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the ``initial state'' device. For example, to turn on CLOCAL mode, 8 bit communication, and XON/XOFF flow control by default for ttyd5, type:

# stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff

System-wide initialization of the serial devices is controlled in /etc/rc.serial. This file affects the default settings of serial devices.

To prevent certain settings from being changed by an application, make adjustments to the ``lock state'' device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, type:

# stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600

Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps.

Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by the root account.

17.3. Terminals

Contributed by Sean Kelly.

Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD.

17.3.1. Uses and Types of Terminals

The original UNIX systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work.

Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every UNIX style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to an unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System.

For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system.

For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals:

The remaining subsections describe each kind.

17.3.1.1. Dumb Terminals

Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called ``dumb'' because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth.

There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features.

Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphical applications such as those provided by the X Window System.

17.3.1.2. PCs Acting as Terminals

If a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer.

Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system.

17.3.1.3. X Terminals

X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application.

We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals.

17.3.2. Configuration

This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected--and that you have connected it.

Recall from Chapter 7 that the init process is responsible for all process control and initialization at system startup. One of the tasks performed by init is to read the /etc/ttys file and start a getty process on the available terminals. The getty process is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program.

Thus, to configure terminals for your FreeBSD system the following steps should be taken as root:

  1. Add a line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there.

  2. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file.

  3. Specify the default terminal type.

  4. Set the port to ``on.''

  5. Specify whether the port should be ``secure.''

  6. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file.

As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This chapter does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the gettytab(5) and the getty(8) manual pages for more information.

17.3.2.1. Adding an Entry to /etc/ttys

The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file also contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part (for example, /dev/ttyv0 would be listed as ttyv0).

A default FreeBSD install includes an /etc/ttys file with support for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal to one of those ports, you do not need to add another entry.

Example 17-1. Adding Terminal Entries to /etc/ttys

Suppose we would like to connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and an old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). The corresponding entries in the /etc/ttys file would look like this:

ttyd1(1)  "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400"(2)  wy50(3)  on(4)  insecure(5)
ttyd5   "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200"  vt100  on  insecure
(1)
The first field normally specifies the name of the terminal special file as it is found in /dev.
(2)
The second field is the command to execute for this line, which is usually getty(8). getty initializes and opens the line, sets the speed, prompts for a user name and then executes the login(1) program.

The getty program accepts one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type configures characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab.

The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The gettytab(5) manual page provides more information.

When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match.

For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps.

(3)
The third field is the type of terminal usually connected to that tty line. For dial-up ports, unknown or dialup is typically used in this field since users may dial up with practically any type of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type from the termcap(5) database file in this field.

For our example, the Wyse-50 uses the real terminal type while the 286 PC running Procomm will be set to emulate at VT-100.

(4)
The fourth field specifies if the port should be enabled. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty. If you put off in this field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port.
(5)
The final field is used to specify whether the port is secure. Marking a port as secure means that you trust it enough to allow the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) to login from that port. Insecure ports do not allow root logins. On an insecure port, users must login from unprivileged accounts and then use su(1) or a similar mechanism to gain superuser privileges.

It is highly recommended that you use ``insecure'' even for terminals that are behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges.

17.3.2.2. Force init to Reread /etc/ttys

After making the necessary changes to the /etc/ttys file you should send a SIGHUP (hangup) signal to the init process to force it to re-read its configuration file. For example:

# kill -HUP 1

Note: init is always the first process run on a system, therefore it will always have PID 1.

If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, then a getty process should be running on each terminal and you should see login prompts on your terminals at this point.

17.3.3. Troubleshooting Your Connection

Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes.

17.3.3.1. No Login Prompt Appears

Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port.

Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable.

Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply.

Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. For example, to get a list of running getty processes with ps, type:

# ps -axww|grep getty

You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the following display shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab:

22189  d1  Is+    0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1

If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Also remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying the ttys file.

If the getty process is running but the terminal still does not display a login prompt, or if it displays a prompt but will not allow you to type, your terminal or cable may not support hardware handshaking. Try changing the entry in /etc/ttys from std.38400 to 3wire.38400 remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying /etc/ttys). The 3wire entry is similar to std, but ignores hardware handshaking. You may need to reduce the baud rate or enable software flow control when using 3wire to prevent buffer overflows.

17.3.3.2. If Garbage Appears Instead of a Login Prompt

Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1.

17.3.3.3. Characters Appear Doubled; the Password Appears When Typed

Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) from ``half duplex'' or ``local echo'' to ``full duplex.''

17.4. Dial-in Service

Contributed by Guy Helmer. Additions by Sean Kelly.

Configuring your FreeBSD system for dial-in service is very similar to connecting terminals except that you are dealing with modems instead of terminals.

17.4.1. External vs. Internal Modems

External modems seem to be more convenient for dial-up, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly.

Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place.

17.4.1.1. Modems and Cables

If you are using an external modem, then you will of course need the proper cable. A standard RS-232C serial cable should suffice as long as all of the normal signals are wired:

  • Transmitted Data (SD)

  • Received Data (RD)

  • Request to Send (RTS)

  • Clear to Send (CTS)

  • Data Set Ready (DSR)

  • Data Terminal Ready (DTR)

  • Carrier Detect (CD)

  • Signal Ground (SG)

FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400 bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable.

Like other UNIX like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward.

17.4.2. Serial Interface Considerations

FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications.

17.4.3. Quick Overview

As with terminals, init spawns a getty process for each configured serial port for dial-in connections. For example, if a modem is attached to /dev/ttyd0, the command ps ax might show this:

 4850 ??  I      0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0

When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD (Carrier Detect) line is reported by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters.

After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell.

17.4.4. Configuration Files

There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dial-up access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script.

There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems on UNIX. One group likes to configure their modems and systems so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections.

The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the Enter key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as ``junk'', tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseam, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former ``locked-speed'' method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs.

This section will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate.

17.4.4.1. /etc/gettytab

/etc/gettytab is a termcap(5)-style file of configuration information for getty(8). Please see the gettytab(5) manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities.

17.4.4.1.1. Locked-speed Config

If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab.

17.4.4.1.2. Matching-speed Config

You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry.

#
# Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way)
#
D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\
        :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud:
3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\
        :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud:
5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\
        :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud:

If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps:

#
# Additions for a V.32bis Modem
#
um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\
        :nx=V19200:tc=std.300:
un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\
        :nx=V300:tc=std.1200:
uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\
        :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400:
up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\
        :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600:
uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\
        :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200:

This will result in 8-bit, no parity connections.

The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (``next table'') capability. Each of the lines uses a tc= (``table continuation'') entry to pick up the rest of the ``standard'' settings for a particular data rate.

If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps:

#
# Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem
# Starting at 57.6 Kbps
#
vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\
        :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300:
vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\
        :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200:
vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\
        :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400:
vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\
        :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600:
vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\
        :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600:

If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive ``sio'' ``silo'' errors at 57.6 Kbps.

17.4.4.2. /etc/ttys

Configuration of the /etc/ttys file was covered in Example 17-1. Configuration for modems is similar but we must pass a different argument to getty and specify a different terminal type. The general format for both locked-speed and matching-speed configurations is:

ttyd0   "/usr/libexec/getty xxx"   dialup on

The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry -- ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console).

The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dial-up lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems.

After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command

# kill -HUP 1
to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init.

17.4.4.2.1. Locked-speed Config

For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this:

ttyd0   "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200"   dialup on

If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate value for std.speed instead of std.19200. Make sure that you use a valid type listed in /etc/gettytab.

17.4.4.2.2. Matching-speed Config

In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning ``auto-baud'' (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this:

ttyd0   "/usr/libexec/getty V19200"   dialup on

17.4.4.3. /etc/rc.serial

High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports.

For example to set the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2) dial-in and dial-out initialization devices, the following lines could be added to /etc/rc.serial:

# Serial port initial configuration
stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts
stty -f /dev/cuaia1 crtscts

17.4.5. Modem Settings

If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under MS-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements:

  • CD asserted when connected

  • DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line and resets modem

  • CTS transmitted data flow control

  • Disable XON/XOFF flow control

  • RTS received data flow control

  • Quiet mode (no result codes)

  • No command echo

Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it.

For example, to set the above parameters on a U.S. Robotics® Sportster® 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem:

ATZ
AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W

You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression.

The U.S. Robotics Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example:

  • Switch 1: UP -- DTR Normal

  • Switch 2: N/A (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes)

  • Switch 3: UP -- Suppress Result Codes

  • Switch 4: DOWN -- No echo, offline commands

  • Switch 5: UP -- Auto Answer

  • Switch 6: UP -- Carrier Detect Normal

  • Switch 7: UP -- Load NVRAM Defaults

  • Switch 8: N/A (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode)

Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dial-up modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. This sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem.

17.4.5.1. Locked-speed Config

For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a U.S. Robotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands:

ATZ
AT&B1&W

17.4.5.2. Matching-speed Config

For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a U.S. Robotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections:

ATZ
AT&B2&W

17.4.5.3. Checking the Modem's Configuration

Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the U.S. Robotics Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the modem's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4.

If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters.

17.4.6. Troubleshooting

Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dial-up modem on your system.

17.4.6.1. Checking Out the FreeBSD System

Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console -- if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call.

If the DTR indicator does not light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see lines like these among the processes displayed:

  114 ??  I      0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0
  115 ??  I      0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1

If you see something different, like this:

  114 d0  I      0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0

and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem.

If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttydN port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttydN, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files.

17.4.6.2. Try Dialing In

Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing Enter about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a U.S. Robotics Sportster modem, for example).

If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that

  • The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab

  • Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name

  • Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name

If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any).

If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the FreeBSD general questions 邮件列表 describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help.

17.5. Dial-out Service

The following are tips for getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host.

This is useful to log onto a BBS.

This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to FTP something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to FTP it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine.

17.5.1. My Stock Hayes Modem Is Not Supported, What Can I Do?

Actually, the manual page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file.

The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems--messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W).

Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W.

Note: As shipped, tip does not yet support Hayes modems fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip. Obviously you need the source distribution to do this.

Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that.

17.5.2. How Am I Expected to Enter These AT Commands?

Make what is called a ``direct'' entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line:

cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none

Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem.

If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this:

# cd /dev
# sh MAKEDEV cuaa0

Or use cu as root with the following command:

# cu -lline -sspeed

line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit.

17.5.3. The @ Sign for the pn Capability Does Not Work!

The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash:

pn=\@

17.5.4. How Can I Dial a Phone Number on the Command Line?

Put what is called a ``generic'' entry in your /etc/remote file. For example:

tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\
        :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
        :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:

Then you can do things like:

# tip -115200 5551234

If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry:

cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\
        :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:

and type:

# cu 5551234 -s 115200

17.5.5. Do I Have to Type in the bps Rate Every Time I Do That?

Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though.

17.5.6. I Access a Number of Hosts Through a Terminal Server

Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote:

pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\
        :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\
        :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13:
deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
        :dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:

will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin, and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server.

17.5.7. Can Tip Try More Than One Line for Each Site?

This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them.

Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability:

big-university:\
        :pn=\@:tc=dialout
dialout:\
        :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none:

Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones:

big-university 5551111
big-university 5551112
big-university 5551113
big-university 5551114

tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop.

17.5.8. Why Do I Have to Hit Ctrl+P Twice to Send Ctrl+P Once?

Ctrl+P is the default ``force'' character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the ~s escape, which means ``set a variable.''

Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing Ctrl+2 or Ctrl+Space. A pretty good value for single-char is Shift+Ctrl+6, which is only used on some terminal servers.

You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file:

force=<single-char>

17.5.9. Suddenly Everything I Type Is in Upper Case??

You must have pressed Ctrl+A, tip's ``raise character,'' specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features.

Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type Ctrl+2 and Ctrl+A a lot:

force=^^
raisechar=^^

The ^^ is Shift+Ctrl+6.

17.5.10. How Can I Do File Transfers with tip?

If you are talking to another UNIX system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is:

~p local-file [remote-file]

~t remote-file [local-file]

There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem.

17.5.11. How Can I Run zmodem with tip?

To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally.

To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system.

17.6. Setting Up the Serial Console

Contributed by Kazutaka YOKOTA. Based on a document by Bill Paul.

17.6.1. Introduction

FreeBSD has the ability to boot on a system with only a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration should be useful for two classes of people: system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers.

As described in Chapter 7, FreeBSD employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The boot block will then load and run the boot loader (/boot/loader) as the third stage code.

In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot block code, the boot loader code and the kernel.

17.6.2. Serial Console Configuration

  1. Prepare a serial cable.

    You will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See Section 17.2.2 for a discussion on serial cables.

  2. Unplug your keyboard.

    Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged in.

    If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, then you do not have to do anything special. (Some machines with Phoenix BIOS installed merely say ``Keyboard failed'' and continue to boot normally.)

    If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details on how to do this.

    Tip: Setting the keyboard to ``Not installed'' in the BIOS setup does not mean that you will not be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on, so it will not complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to ``Not installed'' and the keyboard will still work.

    Note: If your system has a PS/2® mouse, chances are very good that you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard. This is because PS/2 mice share some hardware with the keyboard and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a Gateway 2000 Pentium 90 MHz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves this way. In general, this is not a problem since the mouse is not much good without the keyboard anyway.

  3. Plug a dumb terminal into COM1 (sio0).

    If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT with a modem program, or the serial port on another UNIX box. If you do not have a COM1 (sio0), get one. At this time, there is no way to select a port other than COM1 for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you are already using COM1 for another device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and running. (It is assumed that COM1 will be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you really need COM1 for something else (and you cannot switch that something else to COM2 (sio1)), then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in the first place.)

  4. Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has appropriate flags set for COM1 (sio0).

    Relevant flags are:

    0x10

    Enables console support for this unit. The other console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at most one unit can have console support; the first one (in config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set the following flag or use the -h option described below, together with this flag.

    0x20

    Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is another higher priority console), regardless of the -h option discussed below. This flag replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used together with the 0x10 flag.

    0x40

    Reserves this unit (in conjunction with 0x10) and makes the unit unavailable for normal access. You should not set this flag to the serial port unit which you want to use as the serial console. The only use of this flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote debugging. See The Developer's Handbook for more information on remote debugging.

    Note: In FreeBSD 4.0 or later the semantics of the flag 0x40 are slightly different and there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote debugging.

    Example:

    device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4

    See the sio(4) manual page for more details.

    If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a different console) or recompile the kernel.

  5. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive.

    This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you need one or more of the following options--if you want multiple options, include them all on the same line:

    -h

    Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from the internal (video) console, you can use -h to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, if you boot from the serial port, you can use the -h to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead.

    -D

    Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of the -h option above. In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of the -h option. However, note that the dual console configuration takes effect only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by the -h option becomes the only console.

    -P

    Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the -D and -h options are automatically set.

    Note: Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, the -P option is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is the case with your system, you have to abandon using the -P option. Unfortunately there is no workaround for this problem.

    Use either the -P option to select the console automatically, or the -h option to activate the serial console.

    You may include other options described in boot(8) as well.

    The options, except for -P, will be passed to the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of the -h option alone. This means that if you specify the -D option but not the -h option in /boot.config, you can use the serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console.

  6. Boot the machine.

    When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example:

    /boot.config: -P
Keyboard: no

    The second line appears only if you put -P in /boot.config and indicates presence/absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config.

    Options Message goes to
    none internal console
    -h serial console
    -D serial and internal consoles
    -Dh serial and internal consoles
    -P, keyboard present internal console
    -P, keyboard absent serial console

    After the above messages, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly.

    Hit any key, other than Enter, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you for further action. You should now see something like:

    >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT
Default: 0:wd(0,a)/boot/loader
boot:

    Verify the above message appears on either the serial or internal console or both, according to the options you put in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, hit Enter to continue the boot process.

    If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In the meantime, you enter -h and hit Enter/Return (if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong.

After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See Section 17.6.5.

17.6.3. Summary

Here is the summary of various settings discussed in this section and the console eventually selected.

17.6.3.1. Case 1: You Set the Flags to 0x10 for sio0

device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4
Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel
nothing internal internal internal
-h serial serial serial
-D serial and internal internal internal
-Dh serial and internal serial serial
-P, keyboard present internal internal internal
-P, keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial

17.6.3.2. Case 2: You Set the Flags to 0x30 for sio0

device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x30 irq 4
Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel
nothing internal internal serial
-h serial serial serial
-D serial and internal internal serial
-Dh serial and internal serial serial
-P, keyboard present internal internal serial
-P, keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial

17.6.4. Tips for the Serial Console

17.6.4.1. Setting a Faster Serial Port Speed

By default, the serial port settings are: 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot blocks:

BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200

If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with -h, or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel:

options CONSPEED=19200

17.6.4.2. Using Serial Port Other Than sio0 for the Console

Using a port other than sio0 as the console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the boot loader and the kernel as follows.

  1. Get the kernel source. (See Chapter 21)

  2. Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only sio0 through sio3 (COM1 through COM4) can be used; multiport serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is needed.

  3. Create a custom kernel configuration file and add appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For example, if you want to make sio1 (COM2) the console:

    device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 flags 0x10 irq 3

    or

    device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 flags 0x30 irq 3

    The console flags for the other serial ports should not be set.

  4. Recompile and install the boot blocks and the boot loader:

    # cd /sys/boot
# make
# make install

  5. Rebuild and install the kernel.

  6. Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with disklabel(8) and boot from the new kernel.

17.6.4.3. Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line

If you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should compile your kernel with the following options:

options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER
options DDB

17.6.4.4. Getting a Login Prompt on the Serial Console

While this is not required, you may wish to get a login prompt over the serial line, now that you can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session through the serial console. Here is how to do it.

Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor and locate the lines:

ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure
ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure
ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure
ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure

ttyd0 through ttyd3 corresponds to COM1 through COM4. Change off to on for the desired port. If you have changed the speed of the serial port, you need to change std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g. std.19200.

You may also want to change the terminal type from unknown to the actual type of your serial terminal.

After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1 to make this change take effect.

17.6.5. Changing Console from the Boot Loader

Previous sections described how to set up the serial console by tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the console by entering some commands and environment variables in the boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked at the third stage of the boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader will override the settings in the boot block.

17.6.5.1. Setting Up the Serial Console

You can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial console by writing just one line in /boot/loader.rc:

set console=comconsole

This will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot block discussed in the previous section.

You had better put the above line as the first line of /boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on the serial console as early as possible.

Likewise, you can specify the internal console as:

set console=vidconsole

If you do not set the boot loader environment variable console, the boot loader, and subsequently the kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the -h option in the boot block.

In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in /boot/loader.conf.local or /boot/loader.conf, rather than in /boot/loader.rc. In this method your /boot/loader.rc should look like:

include /boot/loader.4th
start

Then, create /boot/loader.conf.local and put the following line there.

console=comconsole

or

console=vidconsole

See loader.conf(5) for more information.

Note: At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the -P option in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard.

17.6.5.2. Using a Serial Port Other Than sio0 for the Console

You need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the procedure described in Section 17.6.4.2.

17.6.6. Caveats

The idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately, while most systems will let you boot without a keyboard, there are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter. Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter installed simply by changing the ``graphics adapter'' setting in the CMOS configuration to ``Not installed.''

However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these machines, you will have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, (even if it is just a junky mono board) although you will not have to attach a monitor. You might also try installing an AMI BIOS.

Chapter 18. PPP 和 SLIP

Restructured, reorganized, and updated by Jim Mock.

18.1. 概述

FreeBSD有很多方法可以将计算机与计算机连接起来. 通过一个拨号modem来建立一个网络或Internet连接, 或允许其他人与你连接,要求使用PPP或SLIP.这章将详细介绍设置这些基于modem的通信服务的方法 .

读完这一章,你将会了解到:

  • 如何设置用户级PPP.

  • 如何设置内核级PPP.

  • 如何设置 PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet).

  • 如何设置 PPPoA (PPP over ATM).

  • 如何配置和安装SLIP客户端和服务器.

在阅读这章之前,你应当:

  • 熟悉基本的网络术语.

  • 理解拨号连接和PPP,SLIP的基础知识.

你可能想知道用户级PPP与内核级PPP不同之处.回答很简单: 用户级PPP处理用户级的输入和输出数据,而不是内核级. 在内核与用户区之间复制数据的花费要大一些,但它能提供具有更多特性的PPP实现 . 用户级PPP使用 tun设备与外界通信而内核级PPP使用 ppp设备.

Note: 除非需要与其它PPP软件(比如pppd)相区别,在这一章中 用户级PPP就简称为ppp.另外,若没有额外的注明,本章所介绍 的所有命令都需要root权限. .

18.2. 使用用户级PPP

Updated and enhanced by Tom Rhodes. Originally contributed by Brian Somers. With input from Nik Clayton, Dirk Fr鰉berg, and Peter Childs.

18.2.1. 用户级PPP

18.2.1.1. 前提条件

本章假定你具备如下条件:

  • 你有一个ISP提供的用于连接使用PPP的帐号.

  • 你需要一个连接到你的系统并做了正确配置的modem或其它设备,使你能连接到ISP.

  • ISP的拨号号码.

  • 你的登陆名称和密码（可能是一般的UNIX风格的登陆名和密码对, 也可能是PAP或CHAP登陆名和密码对.)

  • 一个或多个域名服务器IP地址. 通常,你会从ISP处得到两个这样的IP地址. 如果你至少得到了一个, 就可以 在文件ppp.conf中加入enable dns命令 使ppp设置域名服务.这个功能取决于ISP对支持DNS协商的具体实现.

下面的信息由你的ISP提供,但不是必需的:

  • ISP的网关IP地址. 网关是你要连接的且要被设为默认路由的主机. 如果你没有这个信息,你可以虚构一个,在连接时ISP的PPP服务器会自动告诉你正确的值.

    这个虚构的IP号被ppp称为 HISADDR.

  • 需要使用的子网掩码.如果ISP没有提供,你可以安全地使用 255.255.255.255.

  • 如果ISP提供了一个静态的IP地址和主机名,可以输入它们.否则,让对方主机指定它 认为合适的IP地址.

如果你不知道这些信息,请与你的ISP联系.

Note: 在这节中,所有作为样例显示的配置文件信息都对行进行了编号. 这些行号只是为了使解释和讨论变得方便,在真实当地用tab键和sp文件中并不存在. 缩进是必需的.

18.2.1.2. 创建PPP设备节点

一般情况下,大多数用户只需要一个tun设备 (/dev/tun0),提及tun0时, 即指tunN,N是你系统中具体的号码.

若的FreeBSD(FreeBSD 4.X 及早前版本)没有启用devfs(5),应当先检查 是否存在tun0设备,如果已经启用了devfs(5),这一步就没必要了 (因为devfs(5)会根据需要创建设备).

为了确保tun0配置正确,最古老的方式是重新创建它. 按照以下步骤可以重新创建设备:

# cd /dev
      # sh MAKEDEV tun0

如果你的内核要有16个tunnel设备,你必须创建它们.可以通过执行以下命令完成:

# cd /dev
      # sh MAKEDEV tun15

18.2.1.3. PPP自动化配置

ppp和pppd(PPP的内核级实现) 都使用/etc/ppp目录中的配置文件.用户级PPP的例子能 在/usr/share/examples/ppp/中找到.

配置ppp要求根据你的需要编辑几个文件.编辑哪几个文件取决于你的 IP是静态分配还是动态分配的.

18.2.1.3.1. PPP和静态IP地址

你需要编辑配置文件/etc/ppp/ppp.conf.如下所示.

Note: 以冒号:结尾的行从第一列 (行首)开始, 其它所有的行都要缩进一个空格或制表区间.

1     default:
2       set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command
3       ident user-ppp VERSION (built COMPILATIONDATE)
4       set device /dev/cuaa0
5       set speed 115200
6       set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \
7                 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\T TIMEOUT 40 CONNECT"
8       set timeout 180
9       enable dns
10
11    provider:
12      set phone "(123) 456 7890"
13      set authname foo
14      set authkey bar
15      set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: \\U word: \\P col: ppp"
16      set timeout 300
17      set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0
18      add default HISADDR
行1 :

指定默认的项.当PPP运行时这个项中的命令将自动执行.

行2:

启用登陆参数.工作正常后,为避免产生过多的日志文件,这行应该简化为：

set log phase tun
.

行 3:

告诉PPP怎样向对方自我标识. 如果在建立或使用连接时遇到任何麻烦,PPP就会向对方主机自我标识.对方主机管理员 在处理这个问题时,这些信息会有用.

行 4:

标明modem要连接的端口号.COM1是 /dev/cuaa0, COM2 是/dev/cuaa1.

行 5:

设置连接的速度.如果115200 不能工作,试试 38400.

行6 和7:

拨号字符串. 用户级PPP使用一种与chat(8)程序相似的语法. 请参考联机手册了解这种语言的相关信息.

注意,为了便于阅读此命令进行了换行.任何ppp.conf里的 命令都可以这样做,前提是行的最后一个字符必须是“\”.

行 8:

设置连接的时间间隔.默认是180秒,所以这一行是多余的.

行 9:

告诉PPP向对方主机确认本地域名解析设置.如果你运行了本地的域名服务器,要注释或删除掉这一行.

行 10:

为了可读性的需要设置一个空行.空行会被PPP忽略.

行 11:

为``provider''指定一个项.可以改成 ISP的名字.这样你以后就可以使用load ISP 开启连接.

行 12:

设置提供商的电话号码. 多个电话号码可以使用冒号(:) 或管道符号(|)隔开.这两个字符的区别在ppp(8)的联机手册中有介绍. 总的来讲,如果你要循环使用这些号码,可以使用冒号.如果你想使用第一个号码, 当第一个号码失败了再用第二个号码,就使用管道符号.正如显示的那样,要用括号将号码集括起来.

如果电话号码里有空格,必须用引号(")将其括起来. 否则会造成简单却难以察觉的错误.

行13和14:

指定用户名和密码.当使用一个UNIX风格的命令提示符登陆时,这些值可以用带有\U \P参数 的set login命令进行修改.当使用PAP或CHAP进行连接时, 这些值在验证使用.

行 15:

如果你使用的是PAP或者CHAP,在这里就不会有登陆.要注释或删除掉这一行. 请参考 PAP和CHAP认证 以获取更多细节.

登陆命令是的语法是chat类型的.在这个例子中,是这样的:

J. Random Provider
login: foo
password: bar
protocol: ppp

你需要改变这个脚本以适合你自己的需要.当你第一次写这个脚本时, 应当确保已经启用``chat''并处于登陆状态,这样你才能确认通信是否 正在按计划进行.

行16:

设置默认的超时时间.这里,连接若在300秒内无响应将被断开.如果你不想设置成超时, 将这个值设置成0,或在命令行使用-ddial选项.

行 17:

设置接口地址. 字符串 x.x.x.x需要用ISP提供给你的IP地址替换. 字符串 y.y.y.y要用ISP的网关IP地址替换(即你要连接的主机). 如果ISP没有给你网关地址,可以使用10.0.0.2/0. 如果你需要使用一个``猜到''的地址,请确保在/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup 中为每个PPP和动态IP地址指令创建了项. 如果没有这一行,ppp 将无法运行-auto模式.

行18:

添加一个到ISP网关的默认路由.HISADDR这个特殊的词会被第9行指定的网关地址所替换. 这行出现在第9行之后是非常重要的,否则HISADDR将不能初始化.

如果你不想用-auto选项运行PPP, 这行要被移到ppp.linkup文件.

若你有一个静态IP地址,且使用-auto 模式运行ppp(因为在连接之前已经正确设置了路由表项),那就不需要再向ppp.linkup 添加项.你可能希望在连接以后创建一个项来调用程序.这在以后的sendmail的例子中会解释. .

示例配置文件可以在目录/usr/share/examples/ppp/中找到.

18.2.1.3.2. PPP和动态IP地址

如果ISP没给你指定静态的IP地址,ppp要被配置成能够与对方协商确定本地和远程地址. 要完成这项工作,先要``猜''一个IP地址,然后允许 ppp在连接后使用IP配置协议(IPCP)进行正确配置. ppp.conf的配置是与 PPP和静态IP地址一样的,除了以下的改变:

17      set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255

再次强调,不要包括行号,它只是一个引用标记.缩排一个空格是必须的.

行17:

/字符以后是PPP所要求的地址位码. 你可以根据需要使用不同IP号码,但以上的例子永远是可行的.

最后的参数(0.0.0.0)告诉 PPP从0.0.0.0 而不是 10.0.0.1 开始协商地址,对于有些ISP, 这是必需的.不要将 0.0.0.0 作为 set ifaddr的第一个参数,因为这使得PPP在 -auto 模式时不能设置初始路由.

如果你不运行-auto模式, 就需要在/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup中创建一个项. 连接建立之后,ppp.linkup被启用. 这时候, ppp将指派接口地址,接着再添加路由表项:

1     provider:
2        add default HISADDR
Line 1:

为了建立连接, ppp 会按按照如下规则在 ppp.linkup寻找项:首先,试图寻找相同的标签 (如同在ppp.conf一样）.如果失败了,寻找作为网关 IP地址的项,此项是四个八位字节的风格.如果依旧没有找到,就寻找MYADDR项

行 2:

这行告诉 ppp添加指向 HISADDR的默认路由. HISADDR由通过IPCP协商得到的IP号替换.

参考/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample 和/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample 中的pmdemand项以获取细节化的例子.

18.2.1.3.3. 接收拨入

当要配置 ppp接受来自LAN上的 拨入时,你需要决定是否将包转给LAN.如果是的话,你就必须从LAN子网中 给对方分配一个IP, 需要在文件/etc/ppp/ppp.conf 中使用命令enable proxy .你还应该确定文件 /etc/rc.conf中包含以下内容：

gateway_enable="YES"
18.2.1.3.4. 使用哪个ggtty?

配置FreeBSD的拨号服务描述了怎么使用命令 getty(8)启动拨号服务.

除了getty 还有 mgetty, 它是getty的智能版本,是按照拨号线的思想设计的.

使用mgetty的好处是它能积极地与modems进行 talks , 这就意味着如果在/etc/ttys中的端口被关闭, 你的moderm就不会回应拨入.

最新版本的mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards)也支持自动侦测PPP数据流,允许客户端不使用脚本就可以访问服务器 .

参考Mgetty 和 AutoPPP的联机手册了解更多信息.

18.2.1.3.5. PPP 权限

ppp命令通常必须作为root用户运行. 但如果想让一个普通用户将ppp运行于服务器模式(就像下面描述的那样) ,你必须要把此用户加入network组以使其获得运行 ppp 的权限.

你还需要使用allow命令使用户能访问配置文 件的一个或多个部分:

allow users fred mary

如果这个命令被用在 default 部分中,你可以让指定的用户访问任何东西.

18.2.1.3.6. 动态IP用户的PPP Shell

创建一个名为/etc/ppp/ppp-shell文件,加入以下内容:

#!/bin/sh
IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'`
CALLEDAS="$IDENT"
TTY=`tty`

if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then
        IDENT=`basename $TTY`
fi

echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY"
echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT"

exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT

这个脚本要有可执行属性. 然后通过如下命令创建一个指向此脚本且名为 ppp-dialup的符号链接:

# ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup

你应该将这个脚本作为所有拨入用户的shell. 以下是在文件/etc/password中关于一个PPP用户的例子,用户名为 pchilds (切记不要直接修改这个密码文件, 而是使用vipw命令).

pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup

创建一个名为 /home/ppp的目录作为拨入用户的主目录, 包含以下这些空文件:

-r--r--r--   1 root     wheel           0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin
-r--r--r--   1 root     wheel           0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts

这样就可以防止/etc/motd被显示出来.

18.2.1.3.7. 静态IP用户的Shell

像上面那样创建ppp-shell文件, 为每个静态分配IP用户创建一个到 ppp-shell的 符号链接.

例如,如果你有三个拨号用户, fred,sam,和 mary,你为他们路由C类网络,你需要键入以下内容:

# ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred
# ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam
# ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary

每个用户的Shell必须被设成一个符号链接(例如用户 mary的Shell应该是/etc/ppp/ppp-mary).

18.2.1.3.8. 为动态IP用户设置ppp.conf

/etc/ppp/ppp.conf文件应该包含下面 这些行:

default:
  set debug phase lcp chat
  set timeout 0

ttyd0:
  set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255
  enable proxy

ttyd1:
  set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255
  enable proxy

Note: 缩进得必须的.

default:项在每次会话时都会加载.每个在 /etc/ttys中启用的行都必须为其创建一个相似于 ttyd0: 的项.每一行应该从动态IP 地址池中取得 唯一的IP地址.

18.2.1.3.9. 为静态IP用户配置ppp.conf

根据上面/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf文件的内容, 你必须为每个静态拨号用户添加一个项.我们继续以fred, sam, 和mary为例.

fred:
  set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255

sam:
  set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255

mary:
  set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255

如果需要,/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup 也应该包括每个静态IP用户的的路由信息.下面这一行为客户连接添加了 203.14.101.0C类路由.

fred:
  add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR

sam:
  add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR

mary:
  add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR
18.2.1.3.10. mgetty和AutoPPP

在配置和编译mgetty 时启用 AUTO_PPP选项 使mgetty能够探测PPP连接的的LCP状态 并自动产生PPP Shell. 但如果默认的login/password队列没有出现, 那就必须使用PAP或CHAP来验证用户.

这节假定你已经为用户成功地配置,编译了带有AUTO_PPP选项的 mgetty.

确认钅件/usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config 包含以下内容:

/AutoPPP/ -     -            /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup

这行告诉mgetty运行 ppp-pap-dialup脚本来侦听PPP连接.

创建/etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup文件写入以下内容 (此文件应该是可执行的):

#!/bin/sh
exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT

对应于每个在/etc/ttys的启用行,都要在/etc/ppp/ppp.conf 中创建相应的项. 这和上面的定义是相同的.

pap:
  enable pap
  set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40
  enable proxy

每个通过这种方式登陆的用户必须在 /etc/ppp/ppp.secret文件中有一个username/password项,或者加入 以下选项以使服务器通过PAP方式用/etc/password文件验证用户.

enable passwdauth

如果你想为某些用户分配静态IP, 可以在/etc/ppp/ppp.secret中将IP号作为第三个参数指定. 参看 /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample 中的例子.

18.2.1.3.11. MS Extensions

可以配置PPP以提供DNS和NetBIOS域名服务器地址.

要在PPP版本 1.x中启用这些扩展,必须向 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf的相关项加入以下行：

enable msext
set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
set nbns 203.14.100.5

PPP版本2及以上 :

accept dns
set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
set nbns 203.14.100.5

这将告诉客户端首选域名服务器和备用域名服务器.

在版本2及以上版本中, 如果省略了 set dns, PPP会使用 /etc/resolv.conf中的值.

18.2.1.3.12. PAP 和CHAP验证

一些ISP将系统设置成使用PAP或CHAP机制来完成连接的验证部分. . 如果是这样,在你连接时ISP就不会给出login:提示符而是立即开始PPP对话.

PAP安全性要比CHAP差一些,但在这里安全性并不是问题,因为密码(即使用明文传送)只是通过串行线传送. 黑客没有太多机会``窃听''.

参考PPP 和静态IP地址 或 PPP 和动态IP地址 节,必须做以下修改:

7       set login
...
12      set authname MyUserName
13      set authkey MyPassword
行 7:

如果使用PAP或CHAP,你的ISP一般不需要你登陆入服务器.因此你必须禁用 ``set login''字串.

行12:

这一行指明你的PAP/CHAP用户名. 你需要为MyUserName输入正确的值.

行 13:

这一行指明你的PAP/CHAP密码. 你需要为 MyPassword输入正确的值.你也可以加入附加的行 ,比如:

15      accept PAP

或

15      accept CHAP

以明确你的意图,但PAP和CHAP都是被默认接受的.

18.2.1.3.13. 即时改变你的ppp 配置

与后台运行的ppp程序进行对话是可能的, 前提是设置了一个合适的诊断端口. 做到这一点,需要把下面的行加入到你的配置中:

set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177

这行告诉 PPP在指定的UNIX域socket中侦听,当用户连接时需要给出指定的密码. %d用tun设备号替换.

一旦启用了socket, 就可以在脚本中调用程序pppctl(8)来处理正在运行的 的PPP.

18.2.1.4. 使用PPP网络地址翻译

PPP可以使用内建的NAT,而不需内核支持. 这个功能可以通过在/etc/ppp/ppp.conf中的 以下行启用:

nat enable yes

PPP NAT也可以使用命令行选项 -nat启动. 在文件 /etc/rc.conf中也有 ppp_nat项,且是默认启用的.

如果你使用了这个特性, 你还会发现在 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf中以下 选项对于启用incoming connections forwarding是有用的:

nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:ftp ftp
nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:http http

or do not trust the outside at all

nat deny_incoming yes

18.2.1.5. 最后的系统配置

现在你已配置了ppp,但在真正工作之前还有一些事情要做.它们都与编辑 /etc/rc.conf有关.

从上依次往下看,确认设置了 hostname= 行, e.g.:

hostname="foo.example.com"

如果你的ISP提供给你一个静态的IP和名字,将这个名字设为hostname是最合适的.

寻找 network_interfaces 变量. 如果要配置系统通过拨号连入ISP, 一定要将tun0设备加入这个列表,否则就删除它.

network_interfaces="lo0 tun0"
ifconfig_tun0=

Note: ifconfig_tun0变量应该是空的,且要创建一个名为 /etc/start_if.tun0的文件. 这个文件应该包含这一行:

ppp -auto mysystem

此脚本在网络配置时被执行,开启PPP守护进程进入自动模式.如果这台机子充当一个LAN的网关, 你可能希望使用-alias.参考相关联机手册了解更多细节.

在/etc/rc.conf用下面这一行把路由程序设为NO:

router_enable="NO"

routed 守护进程没有启动是很重要的 (它是默认启动的),因为routed会删除ppp建立的默认路由表项.

保证 sendmail_flags行不包含-q选项是值得的,否则 sendmail每次都会对网络进行查询,可能使你的机器dial out. 可以这样试试:

sendmail_flags="-bd"

替代的作法是当每次PPP连接建立时你必须通过键入以下命令强制 sendmail重新检查邮件队列:

# /usr/sbin/sendmail -q

你也可以在ppp.linkup使用!bg命令自动完成这些工作:

1     provider:
2       delete ALL
3       add 0 0 HISADDR
4       !bg sendmail -bd -q30m

如果你不喜欢这样做, 可以设立一个 ``dfilter'' 以阻止 SMTP传输.参考相关文件了解更多细节 .

现在你唯一要做的事是重新启动计算机.

现在你唯一要做的事是重新启动计算机.重启后, 你现在可以键入:

# ppp

然后是dial provider以开启 PPP会话. 或者如果你想让ppp自动建立会话 ,因为你有一个广域连接(且没有创建 start_if.tun0 脚本),键入:

# ppp -auto provider

18.2.1.6. 总结

当第一次设置PPP时,下面几步是必须的:

客户端:

  1. 确保 tun编译进了进核.

  2. 确保tunN设备文件在 /dev目录中是可用的.

  3. 在 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf中创建一个项. pmdemand示例应该适合于绝大多数ISP.

  4. 如果你使用动态IP地址,在/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup创建一个项.

  5. 更新/etc/rc.conf 文件.

  6. 如果你要求按需拨号,创建一个start_if.tun0脚本.

服务器端:

  1. 确保tun设备已编译入内核.

  2. 确保tunN设备文件在 /dev目录中是可用的.

  3. 在/etc/passwd中创建一个项 (使用vipw(8)程序).

  4. 在用户的home目录创建一个运行 ppp -direct direct-server或相似命令的profile.

  5. 在/etc/ppp/ppp.conf中创建一个项. direct-server示例应该能满足要求.

  6. 在 /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup中创建一个项.

  7. 更新 /etc/rc.conf 文件.

18.3. 使用内核级PPP

Parts originally contributed by Gennady B. Sorokopud and Robert Huff.

18.3.1. 设立内核级PPP

在开始设置内核级PPP时, 需要确信pppd已经被定位在/usr/sbin 中 且存在/etc/ppp目录 .

pppd能在两种模式下工作:

  1. 作为一个``客户'' -- 你要通过PPP串行线或modem线把你的机器连接到互联网上 .

  2. 作为``服务器'' --计算机已经位于网络上,且被用于通过PPP与其它计算机连接.

两种情况你都需要设立一个选项文件, (/etc/ppp/options 或者是 ~/.ppprc 如果你的计算机有多个用户使用PPP).

你还需要一些modem/serial软件(comms/kermit就很适合), 使你能够拨号并与远程主机建立连接.

18.3.2. 使用pppd作为客户端

Based on information provided by Trev Roydhouse.

下面这个 /etc/ppp/options选项文件能够被用来与CISCO终端服务器的 PPP线连接.

crtscts         # enable hardware flow control
modem           # modem control line
noipdefault     # remote PPP server must supply your IP address
                # if the remote host does not send your IP during IPCP
                # negotiation, remove this option
passive         # wait for LCP packets
domain ppp.foo.com      # put your domain name here

:<remote_ip>    # put the IP of remote PPP host here
                # it will be used to route packets via PPP link
                # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option
                # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip>

defaultroute    # put this if you want that PPP server will be your
                # default router

连接:

  1. 使用kermit(或其它的拨号软件)拨号到远程主机, 然后键入用户名和密码 (或者其它).

  2. 退出kermit (不挂断连接).

  3. 键入下面这行:

    # /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200

    一定要使用正确的速度和设备名.

现在你的计算机已经用PPP连接. 如果连接失败 , 你可在文件/etc/ppp/options中添加 debug选项,察看控制台信息以跟踪问题.

下面这个/etc/ppp/pppup脚本能自动完成这三个步骤:

#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
        kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
        kill -9 ${pid}
fi

ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete

kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial
pppd /dev/tty01 19200

/etc/ppp/kermit.dial是一个 kermit脚本,它用于 向远程主机进行拨号和验证(在文档的最后有这个脚本的例子).

使用下面这个脚本/etc/ppp/pppdown断开PPP连线:

#!/bin/sh
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
        kill -TERM ${pid}
fi

ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
        kill -9 ${pid}
fi

/sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down
/sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup
/etc/ppp/ppptest

通过执行/usr/etc/ppp/ppptest,看看pppd 是否仍在运行:

#!/bin/sh
pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE}
else
        echo 'No pppd running.'
fi
set -x
netstat -n -I ppp0
ifconfig ppp0

执行脚本 /etc/ppp/kermit.hup以挂起moderm,这个文件包含:

set line /dev/tty01    ; put your modem device here
set speed 19200
set file type binary
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none

pau 1
out +++
inp 5 OK
out ATH0\13
echo \13
exit

也可以用chat 代替kermit:

以下两个文件用以建立pppd连接.

/etc/ppp/options:

/dev/cuaa1 115200

crtscts     # enable hardware flow control
modem       # modem control line
connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script"
noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address
            # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during
                # IPCP negotiation, remove this option
passive         # wait for LCP packets
domain <your.domain>  # put your domain name here

:       # put the IP of remote PPP host here
            # it will be used to route packets via PPP link
                # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option
                # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip>

defaultroute    # put this if you want that PPP server will be
            # your default router

/etc/ppp/login.chat.script:

Note: 以下的内容应该放在一行内.

ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number>
  CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id>
  TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password>

一旦这些被安装且修改正确,你所要做的就是运行pppd,就像这样:

# pppd

18.3.3. 使用pppd作为服务器

/etc/ppp/options要包括下面这些内容:

crtscts                         # Hardware flow control
netmask 255.255.255.0           # netmask (not required)
192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165  # IP's of local and remote hosts
                                # local ip must be different from one
                                # you assigned to the ethernet (or other)
                                # interface on your machine.
                                # remote IP is IP address that will be
                                # assigned to the remote machine
domain ppp.foo.com              # your domain
passive                         # wait for LCP
modem                           # modem line

下面这个脚本/etc/ppp/pppserv 使pppd以服务器方式启动:

#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
        kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
        kill -9 ${pid}
fi

# reset ppp interface
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete

# enable autoanswer mode
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans

# run ppp
pppd /dev/tty01 19200

使用脚本/etc/ppp/pppservdown停止服务器:

#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
        kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
        echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
        kill -9 ${pid}
fi
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete

kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans

The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this:

set line /dev/tty01
set speed 19200
set file type binary
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none

pau 1
out +++
inp 5 OK
out ATH0\13
inp 5 OK
echo \13
out ATS0=1\13   ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable
                ; autoanswer mode
inp 5 OK
echo \13
exit

一个名为/etc/ppp/kermit.dial的脚本用于向远程主机 进行拨号和验证.你要根据需要定制它.要加入你的登寻名和密码.你还要根据modem 和远程主机的反应更改输入语句.

;
; put the com line attached to the modem here:
;
set line /dev/tty01
;
; put the modem speed here:
;
set speed 19200
set file type binary            ; full 8 bit file xfer
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none
set modem hayes
set dial hangup off
set carrier auto                ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary,
set dial display on             ; Then SET DIAL if necessary,
set input echo on
set input timeout proceed
set input case ignore
def \%x 0                       ; login prompt counter
goto slhup

:slcmd                          ; put the modem in command mode
echo Put the modem in command mode.
clear                           ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
pause 1
output +++                      ; hayes escape sequence
input 1 OK\13\10                ; wait for OK
if success goto slhup
output \13
pause 1
output at\13
input 1 OK\13\10
if fail goto slcmd              ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again

:slhup                          ; hang up the phone
clear                           ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
pause 1
echo Hanging up the phone.
output ath0\13                  ; hayes command for on hook
input 2 OK\13\10
if fail goto slcmd              ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode

:sldial                         ; dial the number
pause 1
echo Dialing.
output atdt9,550311\13\10               ; put phone number here
assign \%x 0                    ; zero the time counter

:look
clear                           ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
increment \%x                   ; Count the seconds
input 1 {CONNECT }
if success goto sllogin
reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10}
if success goto sldial
reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10}
if success goto slnodial
reinput 1 {\255}
if success goto slhup
reinput 1 {\127}
if success goto slhup
if < \%x 60 goto look
else goto slhup

:sllogin                        ; login
assign \%x 0                    ; zero the time counter
pause 1
echo Looking for login prompt.

:slloop
increment \%x                   ; Count the seconds
clear                           ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
output \13
;
; put your expected login prompt here:
;
input 1 {Username: }
if success goto sluid
reinput 1 {\255}
if success goto slhup
reinput 1 {\127}
if success goto slhup
if < \%x 10 goto slloop         ; try 10 times to get a login prompt
else goto slhup                 ; hang up and start again if 10 failures

:sluid
;
; put your userid here:
;
output ppp-login\13
input 1 {Password: }
;
; put your password here:
;
output ppp-password\13
input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.}
echo
quit

:slnodial
echo \7No dialtone.  Check the telephone line!\7
exit 1

; local variables:
; mode: csh
; comment-start: "; "
; comment-start-skip: "; "
; end:

18.4. Troubleshooting PPP Connections

Contributed by Tom Rhodes.

本节将讲述通过modem连接使用PPP时可能出现的问题 . 例如,你可能需要确切地知道你拨入的系统会出现一个怎样的命令行提示符.有些ISP会提供 ssword提示符,而其它的可能会出现 password; 如果没有根据情况的不同相应地编写ppp 脚本,登录就会失败.诊断ppp最常用的方法是手动进行连接 . 以下的信息会一步一步地带你完成手动连接.

18.4.1. 检查设备节点

如果你的内核是经过重新配置的,那么就需要检查sio设备. 如果没有配置过内核, 就没什么可担心的了.只要查看 dmesg的输出以找到modem设备:

#dmesg | grep sio

你应该找到与sio设备有关的输出. 这些就是我们需要的COM端口. 如果你的modem按照标准串行端口工作,你能在sio1或COM2找到它. 如果是这样, 你只需创建serial设备,而不必重建内核. cd到/dev目录,然后运行 MAKEDEV脚本 :

# sh MAKEDEV cuaa0 cuaa1 cuaa2 cuaa3

它会为你的系统创建串行(serial)设备. 如果modem设备连接在sio1接口(在DOS中称为COM2),那么你的modem将会是 /dev/cuaa1.

18.4.2. 手动连接

通过手动控制ppp来连接Internet 是诊断连接及获知ISP处理PPP客户端方式的一个快速,简单的方法. .让我们从PPP 命令行开始.在所有的例子中我们使用 example作为运行PPP主机的主机名.键入ppp 命令打开ppp :

# ppp

现在我们已经打开了ppp.

ppp ON example> set device /dev/cuaa1

设置modem设备,在本例子中是 cuaa1.

ppp ON example> set speed 115200

设置连接速度,在本例中我们使用15,200 kbps.

ppp ON example> enable dns

使ppp配置域名服务, 在文件/etc/resolv.conf中添加域名服务器行. .如果 ppp不能确定我们的主机名,可以在稍后设置.

ppp ON example> term

切换到 ``终端''样我们就能手动地控制模式,这modem.

deflink: Entering terminal mode on /dev/cuaa1
type '~h' for help

at
    OK
    atdt123456789

使用命令at初始化modem, 然后使用atdt和ISP给你的号码进行拨号.

CONNECT

连接配置,如果我们遇到了与硬件无关的连接问题,可以在这里尝试解决.

ISP Login:myusername

这里提示你输入用户名,输入ISP提供的用户名然后按回车.

ISP Pass:mypassword

这时提示我们输入密码,输入 ISP提供的密码. 如同登录入FreeBSD,密码不会显示.

Shell or PPP:ppp

由于ISP的不同,这个提示符可能不会出现.这里我们被问及:是使用 一个运行于提供商端的Shell还是启动ppp. 这本例中,我们选择使用ppp因为我 们想得到Internet连接.

Ppp ON example>

注意在这个例子中,第一个 p已经大写. 这显示我们已经成功地连接上了ISP.

PPp ON example>

我们已经成功通过了 ISP的验证,正在等待分配IP地址.

PPP ON example>

我们得到了一个 IP 地址,成功地完成了连接.

PPP ON example>add default HISADDR

这里,我们添加默认路由.在能与外界通信之前我们需要这样做,因为现在我们 只与服务器端建立了连接.如果由于已存在的路由而导致操作失败, 你可以在add前加!号. 作为另外一种方式,你也可以在真正连接之前设置这些(指add default HISADDR),ppp会根据这项设定协商取 得一个新的路由.

如果一切顺利,现在我们应该能得到一个活动的Internet连接,可以使用CTRL+z使其转入后台.如果你发现 PPP重新变为 ppp,那代表我们失去了连接.. 大写的P表明我们有到ISP的连接 而小写的p表明由于某种原因我们失去了连接.这便于我们了解连接状态. ppp 只有这两个状态.

18.4.2.1. 诊断排错

如果你有一根直连线且似乎不能建立连接,要使用set ctsrts off以关闭字节流的CTS/RTS.这种情况一般发 生在连接兼容PPP的终端服务器时. 当它向通信连接写入数据时,PPP就会挂起, 一直等待一个CTS, 或者一个不可能出现的Clear to Send信号.如果使用了这个选项,你还应该使用 set accmap选项 , which may be required to defeat hardware dependent on passing certain characters from end to end, most of the time XON/XOFF. See the ppp(8) manual page for more information on this option, and how it is used.

如果你有一个比较旧的modem, 你要用 set parity even.Parity被默认地设置为 none , but is used for error checking (with a large increase in traffic) on older modems and some ISPs. You may need this option for the Compuserve ISP.

PPP may not return to the command mode, which is usually a negotiation error where the ISP is waiting for your side to start negotiating. At this point, using the ~p command will force ppp to start sending the configuration information.

If you never obtain a login prompt, then most likely you need to use PAP or CHAP authentication instead of the UNIX style in the example above. To use PAP or CHAP just add the following options to PPP before going into terminal mode:

ppp ON example> set authname myusername

Where myusername should be replaced with the username that was assigned by the ISP.

ppp ON example> set authkey mypassword

Where mypassword should be replaced with the password that was assigned by the ISP.

If you connect fine, but cannot seem to find any domain name, try to use ping(8) with an IP address and see if you can get any return information. If you experience 100 percent (100%) packet loss, then it is most likely that you were not assigned a default route. Double check that the option add default HISADDR was set during the connection. If you can connect to a remote IP address then it is possible that a resolver address has not been added to the /etc/resolv.conf. This file should look like:

domain example.com
nameserver x.x.x.x
nameserver y.y.y.y

Where x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y should be replaced with the IP address of your ISP's DNS servers. This information may or may not have been provided when you signed up, but a quick call to your ISP should remedy that.

You could also have syslog(3) provide a logging function for your PPP connection. Just add:

!ppp
*.*     /var/log/ppp.log

to /etc/syslog.conf. In most cases, this functionality already exists.

18.5. 使用基于以太网的PPP(PPPoE)

Contributed (from http://node.to/freebsd/how-tos/how-to-freebsd-pppoe.html) by Jim Mock.

本节将介绍如何建立基于以太网的PPP (PPPoE).

18.5.1. 配置内核

对于PPPOE,并没有必须的内核配置. 如果必需的netgraph支持没有编译入内核 ,它可以由 ppp动态加载.

18.5.2. 设置ppp.conf

以下是一个ppp.conf的例子:

default:
  set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish
  set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0

name_of_service_provider:
  set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device
  set authname YOURLOGINNAME
  set authkey YOURPASSWORD
  set dial
  set login
  add default HISADDR

18.5.3. 运行ppp

作为root,你可以执行:

# ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider

18.5.4. 启动时运行ppp

在文件/etc/rc.conf加入以下内容:

ppp_enable="YES"
ppp_mode="ddial"
ppp_nat="YES"   # if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO
ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider"

18.5.5. 使用 PPPoE 服务标签

在某些时候,有必要使用一个服务标签来建立你的连接.服务标签用于区分同一网络中的不同服务器.

你可以在ISP提供的文档中找到必要的服务标签信息.若不能找到,向你的ISP询求技术支持.

作为最后的方法, 你可以试试程序 Roaring Penguin PPPoE 所建议的方法,这个程序可以在 ports collection找到. 但要切记, 这会de-program你的modem,可能使其无效,因此在使用之前要考虑再三.装与modem一起取得的程序.然后访问 这个程序的System菜单.你的profile名应该在那里显示出来.一般是会 ISP的名称.

profile名(服务器标签)会在 ppp.conf中的PPPOE配置项作为 set device命令的provider部分被用到(参考ppp(8)). 如下所示:

set device PPPoE:xl1:ISP

记住将xl1换成实际的以太网设备.

记住将 ISP 换成你刚刚找到的profile名.

获得更多的信息,请参考:

18.5.6. 带有一个3Com® HomeConnect®ADSL Modem的PPPOE双重连接

这个modem不遵循RFC 2516 (A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts, D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). 而是使用不同的数据包格式作为以太网的框架.请向 3Com抱怨,如果你认为它应该遵守PPPOE的规范.

为了让FreeBSD能够与这个设备通信,必须设置sysctl.通过更改/etc/sysctl.conf,这一步 可以在启动时自动完成:

net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1

或直接执行命令: sysctl net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1.

很不幸，由于这是系统全局设置,无法同时与正常的PPP客户端(或服务器) 和3ComHomeConnect® ADSL Modem通信 .

18.6. Using PPP over ATM (PPPoA)

以下将介绍如何设置基于ATM的PPP(PPPoA). PPPoA是欧洲DSL提供商的普遍选择 .

18.6.1. 使用带有一个Alcatel SpeedTouch™USB的PPPoA

在FreeBSD中对这个设备的PPPoA支持是作为一个port 提供的.因为此设备的驱动程序是在 Alcatel的许可协议下发布的, 无法再在FreeBSD的基础系统中自由的重新发布.

要安装这个软件,只需使用ports collection. 安装 net/pppoaport,然后根据提供的指示操作.

如同大部分的USB设备, Alcatel SpeedTouch™ USB也需要从主机上 下载驱动程序以正常工作.可以在FreeBSD中自动完成这个过程(当每次设备被接入USB接口时,即完成传输). 加入到/etc/usbd.conf需要加入以下内容以启用自动化固件传输. root才有用户有权限编辑这个文件.

device "Alcatel SpeedTouch USB"
    devname "ugen[0-9]+"
    vendor 0x06b9
    product 0x4061
    attach "/usr/local/sbin/modem_run -f /usr/local/libdata/mgmt.o"

要启动USB守护进程usbd, 在/etc/rc.conf加入以下行:

usbd_enable="YES"

也可以将ppp设置成启动时拨号. 向 /etc/rc.conf加入以下这几行. 同样地你需要以root用户登录.

ppp_enable="YES"
ppp_mode="ddial"
ppp_profile="adsl"

为了使其正常工作,你需要使用net/pppoa port提供的ppp.conf样例.

18.6.2. 使用mpd

你可以使用mpd连接多种服务 ,特别是PPTP服务.你能在ports collection中找到mpd (net/mpd).许多ADSL modem 需要在计算机和modem之间创建一个PPTP tunnel. Alcatel SpeedTouch Home就是这样的modem.

首先你必须安装这个port,然后你要配置 mpd以符合你的需要及提供商的设置.这个port把一系列编写 地很好的配置文件样例放在PREFIX/etc/mpd/目录中. 注意这里的 PREFIX指的是port安装的目录,默认的是 /usr/local/.port完成安装后,会有一份完整的mpd配置向导放在 PREFIX/share/mpd/目录. 这里是一个使用mpd连接ADSL的样例配置信息. 配置分为两个文件 第一个是mpd.conf:

default:
    load adsl

adsl:
    new -i ng0 adsl adsl
    set bundle authname username (1)
    set bundle password password (2)
    set bundle disable multilink

    set link no pap acfcomp protocomp
    set link disable chap
    set link accept chap
    set link keep-alive 30 10

    set ipcp no vjcomp
    set ipcp ranges 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0

    set iface route default
    set iface disable on-demand
    set iface enable proxy-arp
    set iface idle 0

    open
(1)
username用来向你的ISP进行验证.
(2)
password用来向你的ISP进行验证.

mpd.links包含连接的信息:

adsl:
    set link type pptp
    set pptp mode active
    set pptp enable originate incoming outcall
    set pptp self 10.0.0.1 (1)
    set pptp peer 10.0.0.138 (2)
(1)
运行mpd的主机的IP地址.
(2)
ADSL modem的IP地址.Alcatel SpeedTouch Home 默认的是 10.0.0.138.

初始化连接:

# mpd -b adsl

你可以通过以下命令查看连接状态:

% ifconfig ng0
ng0: flags=88d1<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,NOARP,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
     inet 216.136.204.117 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffffff

使用mpd连接ADSL服务是推荐的方式.

18.6.3. 使用pptpclient

也可以使用net/pptpclient连接其它的 PPPoA.

为了使用net/pptpclient连接 DSL服务,需要安装port或package并编辑/etc/ppp/ppp.conf.你需要有 root权限以进行这两项操作.以下是ppp.conf中的一个示例项. 参考ppp的联机手册ppp(8),以获取更多有关ppp.conf 选项的信息.

adsl:
 set log phase chat lcp ipcp ccp tun command
 set timeout 0
 enable dns
 set authname username (1)
 set authkey password (2)
 set ifaddr 0 0
 add default HISADDR
(1)
The username of your account with the DSL provider.
(2)
The password for your account.

Warning由于你必须将帐号密码以明文的方式放入ppp.conf 你应该确保没有任何人能看到此文件的内容.以下一系列命令将会确保此文件只对 root用户可读.参考chmod(1)和chown(8) 的联机手册以获得更多信息.

# chown root:wheel /etc/ppp/ppp.conf
# chmod 600 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf

以下将为到DSL路由器的会话打开一个tunnel. 以太网DSL modem有一个设置的局域网IP地址. 以Alcatel SpeedTouch Home为例,这个地址是 10.0.0.138.路由器的文档应该会告诉你它使用地址.执行以下命令 以打开tunnel并开始会话:

# pptp address adsl

Tip: 你应该在命令的最后加上(``&'')号,否则 pptp 无法返回到命令行提示符.

要创建一个 tun虚拟设备用于进程pptp 和ppp 之间的交互.一旦你返回到了命令行,或者 pptp 进程确认了一个连接,你可以这样检查tunnel设备:

% ifconfig tun0
tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
        inet 216.136.204.21 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffff00
        Opened by PID 918

如果你无法连接,一般可以通过telnet或者web浏览器检查路由器(modem)的配置. 如果依旧无法连接,你应该检查pptp的输出及ppp的日志文件 /var/log/ppp.log 以获得线索.

18.7. 使用SLIP

Originally contributed by Satoshi Asami. With input from Guy Helmer and Piero Serini.

18.7.1. 设置SLIP客户端

下面是一个在静态主机网络上设置FreeBSD机器的方法.对于动态主机名分配(你的地址在每次拨号时都会改变), 你可能还需要更复杂的设置.

首先,确定你的modem连接的串行口. 许多人会设置符号连接, 比如/dev/modem指向真实的设备名 /dev/cuaaN.这充许你抽像真实的设备名. 当你需 要在/etc和.kermrc文件中修复整个系统上的许多文件时, 这是一件非常麻烦的事情!

Note: /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc.

确保你的内核文件包含以下内容:

pseudo-device   sl      1

这包含在GENERIC内核,所以这应该不会是个问题,除非你 已经删除了它.一

18.7.1.1. 只需做一次的事情

  1. 向文件/etc/hosts添加你的主机,网关和域名服务器.我的是这样的:

    127.0.0.1               localhost loghost
136.152.64.181          water.CS.Example.EDU water.CS water
136.152.64.1            inr-3.CS.Example.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway
128.32.136.9            ns1.Example.EDU ns1
128.32.136.12           ns2.Example.EDU ns2

  2. 在FreeBSD5.0以前的版本中,请确保/etc/host.conf中绑定 的hosts必须是存在的.从FreeBSD 5.0开始,系统开始改用 文件/etc/nsswitch.conf, hosts行的dns选项之前必须有files选项. 缺少这些可能会发生很滑稽的事.

  3. 编辑/etc/rc.conf.

    1. 编辑以下这行设置主机名(hostname):

      hostname="myname.my.domain"

      应该用你主机的Internet全名代替.

    2. 改变以下这些行将sl0添加到网络接口 列表中:

      network_interfaces="lo0"

      改为:

      network_interfaces="lo0 sl0"

    3. 加入以下这一行设置sl0的启动标志:

      ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up"

    4. 改变这一行以指明默认的路由:

      defaultrouter="NO"

      改为:

      defaultrouter="slip-gateway"

  4. 创建文件/etc/resolv.conf,写入以下内容:

    domain CS.Example.EDU
nameserver 128.32.136.9
nameserver 128.32.136.12

    正如你看到的, 这些行设置了域名服务器.当然,实际的域名和IP地址取决于你的环境.

  5. 设置root和 toor的密码(其它任何没有密码的帐号).

  6. 重启计算机,然后确认使用了正确的主机名.

18.7.1.2. 创建一个SLIP连接

  1. 在命令行输入slip进行拨号, 输入你的主机名和密码.需要输入的内容取决你的环境.如果你使用kermit,可以试试这个脚本:

    # kermit setup
set modem hayes
set line /dev/modem
set speed 115200
set parity none
set flow rts/cts
set terminal bytesize 8
set file type binary
# The next macro will dial up and login
define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, -
output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, -
output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, -
output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a

    当然,你需要更改主机名和密码以符合实际情况.完成了这些后,你只需在kermit提示符下键入 slip进行连接.

    Note: 将密码以纯文本的形式存放在文件系统无论如何都是个 坏主意. Do it at your own risk.

  2. 退出kermit(你可以用 Ctrl-z将其挂起),以root用户键入:

    # slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem

    如果你能ping通路由器另一端的主机,就是连接好了! 如果不行, 你可以使用-a选项代替 -c作为slattach的参数.

18.7.1.3. 关闭连接

按下面的步骤做:

# kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid`

kill slattach. 切记你一定要是 root用户才有权限. 然后回到kermit(如果想将其挂起,执行命令fg)再从中退出(q).

slattach的联机手册说必须用ifconfig sl0 down 将这个接口标记为关闭,但对我来说,这似乎没有任何区别. (ifconfig sl0仍报告一样的东西.)

有时候,你的modem会拒绝退出 (我的时常这样).遇到这种情况,你只要启动kermit然后再次退出.一般在试二次就可以了.

18.7.1.4. 问题解答

如果不行,尽管来问我.一般可以这样解决问题:

  • 执行slattach时不使用-c和-a选项 (这应该不是关键的,但有些用户报告这样做解决了问题.)

  • 使用s10替换 sl0 (在一些字体下很难看出不同).

  • 试试ifconfig sl0来查看你的接口状态.例如,你可以这样做:

    # ifconfig sl0
sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT>
        inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00

  • 如果在ping时得到一条``no route to host'' 信息,你的路由表可能有问题.可以使用 netstat -r 命令显示当前路由:

    # netstat -r
Routing tables
Destination      Gateway            Flags     Refs     Use  IfaceMTU    Rtt    Netmasks:

(root node)
(root node)

Route Tree for Protocol Family inet:
(root node) =>
default          inr-3.Example.EDU  UG          8   224515  sl0 -      -
localhost.Exampl localhost.Example. UH          5    42127  lo0 -       0.438
inr-3.Example.ED water.CS.Example.E UH          1        0  sl0 -      -
water.CS.Example localhost.Example. UGH        34 47641234  lo0 -       0.438
(root node)

    前述的例子来自于一个非常繁忙的系统. 你系统上的这些数字会因网络活动的不同而改变.

18.7.2. 设置SLIP服务器

本文提供了在FreeBSD上设置SLIP服务的建议,主要是指配置你的系统使其能根据远程SLIP客户端的 登陆自动地开启连接.

18.7.2.1. 前提条件

这一节本身就是非常技术性的, 所以要求有一定的背景知识.本节假定你熟悉TCP/IP网络协议,特别是网络和和结点寻址 ,网络地址掩网, 划分子网, 路由, 路由协议(比如RIP).在一个拨号服务器上配置SLIP需要这些概念性的知识. 如果你不熟悉它们,请先阅读Craig Hunt的 TCP/IP 网络管理 由O'Reilly & Associates, Inc.出版(ISBN号为0-937175-82-X),或者Douglas Comer有关TCP/IP 协议的书籍.

另外还假定你已经设置好了你的modem并配置了相应的文件允许通过modem登陆. 如果你还没有准备好你的系统,请 参考拨号服务的配置指南; 如果你能使用网页浏览器,也可以浏览 http://www.FreeBSD.org/上的指南列表. 你还需要参考sio(4)以获取串行端口设备驱动的信息, ttys(5),gettytab(5), getty(8), & init(8)以获取配置系统以接受modem登录的 相关信息,也许还有 stty(1)以获取有关串行口参数设置的信息(比如clocal指直线串行 接口).

18.7.2.2. 快速浏览

使用FreeBSD作为SLIP服务器,在典型配置时,它是这样工作的： 一个SLIP客户拨号并以专用的login ID登录到FreeBSD SLIP服务器系统.这个用户使用/usr/sbin/sliplogin 作为shell.sliplogin程序在文件/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts中查找这个用户的项, 如果找到了匹配项,就将串行线连接到一个可用的SLIP接口,然后运行shell脚本/etc/sliphome/slip.login 以配置SLIP接口.

18.7.2.2.1. 一个SLIP服务器登录的例子

例如,如果一个SLIP用户的ID是Shelmerg, 在/etc/master.passwd中Shelmerg的项如下的所示:

Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin

Shelmerg登录时, sliplogin在文件 /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts中搜索与用户ID匹配的行;如下所示:

Shelmerg        dc-slip sl-helmer       0xfffffc00       autocomp

sliplogin找到这条区配行, 并将串行线与另一个可用的SLIP接口连起来, 然后执行/etc/sliphome/slip.login脚本:

/etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp

如果一切顺利, /etc/sliphome/slip.login为sliplogin )绑定的接口(在上面的例子中,是slip.login参数列表的第一个参数)运行 ifconfig以设置SLIP接口的本地IP地址(dc-slip),远程IP地址(sl-helmer), 掩码(0xfffffc00),及其它附加的标志(autocomp). 如果出现错误 ,sliplogin 通常会使用syslog守护进程将有用的信息写入 /var/log/messages 参考syslogd(8)和syslog.conf(5)联机手册及/etc/syslog.conf, 以获知syslogd是如何工作的).

好了,让我们开始设置系统 .

18.7.2.3. 内核配置

FreeBSD默认的内核一般定义了两个SLIP接口:(sl0和 sl1); 你可以使用 netstat -i命令查看你的内核是否定义了这些接口.

netstat -i样例输出:

Name  Mtu   Network     Address            Ipkts Ierrs    Opkts Oerrs  Coll
ed0   1500  <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a         291311     0   174209     0   133
ed0   1500  138.247.224 ivory             291311     0   174209     0   133
lo0   65535 <Link>                            79     0       79     0     0
lo0   65535 loop        localhost             79     0       79     0     0
sl0*  296   <Link>                             0     0        0     0     0
sl1*  296   <Link>                             0     0        0     0     0

netstat -i显示的sl0 sl1接口表明你的内核内建了两个SLIP接口. ( sl0和sl1 之后的星号表明 这两个接口是``关闭''的.)

然而,FreeBSD默认的内核并没有配置额外的包 (默认的,你的FreeBSD不会被作为一个路由器) 因为Internet RFC对Internet主机有特殊要求(参考 RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers], 还有 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]). 如果你想让FreeBSD SLIP服务器成为一个路由器,就必须编辑 /etc/rc.conf,将gateway_enable变量设为YES.

然后你要重新启动使新的设置生效.

你会发现靠近默认内核配置文件(/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC)的最后, 有这么一行:

pseudo-device sl 2

这一行定义内核中可用的SLIP设备个数;行末尾的数字表示同时进行操作的SLIP连接的最大个数.

请参考Chapter 9FreeBSD内核配置这一章以获取配置内核的帮助.

18.7.2.4. Sliplogin配置

正如先前所提到的, /etc/sliphome目录有三个文件构成/usr/sbin/sliplogin的配置 (参考sliplogin的联机手册sliplogin(8)): slip.hosts, 定义SLIP用户及有关IP地址; slip.login,一般只配置SLIP接口; 文件 slip.logout(可选的),串行连接终止时,撤消slip.login所做的修改.

18.7.2.4.1. slip.hosts Configuration

/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts里的每行包含至少四个元素,元素之间由空格隔开:

  • SLIP用户的登录ID

  • SLIP连接的本地地址(指SLIP服务器)

  • SLIP连接的远程地址

  • 网络掩网

本地和远程地址可以是主机名 (通过文件/etc/hosts或者域名服务解析为IP地址, 在FreeBSD 5.X上这取决于文件/etc/nsswitch.conf的设置 在FreeBSD 4.X里,则是/etc/host.conf),网络掩网可以是一个 能通过文件/etc/networks解析的名字.在一个样例系统中, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts是这样的:

#
# login local-addr      remote-addr     mask            opt1    opt2
#                                               (normal,compress,noicmp)
#
Shelmerg  dc-slip       sl-helmerg      0xfffffc00      autocomp

在这行的末尾是一个或多个选项.

  • normal --不压缩报头

  • compress -- 压缩报头

  • autocomp --如果远程端允许,压缩报头

  • noicmp --禁用ICMP数据包 (这样就会丢弃所有的``ping''数据包,不占用你的带宽)

对SLIP连接的本地及远程地址的选择取决是你是准备在SLIP服务器上使用 TCP/IP 子网还是使用``ARP代理'' (它并不是``真正的''ARP代理,而是我们在本节用于介绍的术语). 如果你不能确定选择何种方式或者如何分配地址,请参考"前提条件"(Section 18.7.2.1)里列出的TCP/IP书籍 或者向你的IP网络管理员请教.

如果你准备为你的SLIP客户使用一个独立的子网 , 你需要先从分配得到的网络号中取出一个子网号然后再在这个子网里给每个SLIP客户分配IP地址. 然后你还需要通过SLIP服务器在最近的IP路由器上配置一个指向SLIP子网的静态路由.

如果你要使用 ``代理 ARP''的方式,你需要从SLIP服务器的以太子网中为每个SLIP客户分配IP地址, 还必须修改/etc/sliphome/slip.login 和 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout脚本以使用 arp(8)来管理proxy-ARP在服务器ARP表中的项.

18.7.2.4.2. slip.login Configuration

典型的/etc/sliphome/slip.login 如下所示:

#!/bin/sh -
#
#       @(#)slip.login  5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90

#
# generic login file for a slip line.  sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
#      1        2         3        4          5         6     7-n
#   slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6

这个slip.login脚本仅仅为带有相应本地及远程地址和掩码的SLIP接口执行 ifconfig .

如果你决定使用``ARP代理'' 方式(而非为你的SLIP客户使用独立的子网),你的/etc/sliphome/slip.login 应该是这样:

#!/bin/sh -
#
#       @(#)slip.login  5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90

#
# generic login file for a slip line.  sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
#      1        2         3        4          5         6     7-n
#   slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6
# Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr
/usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub

slip.login新加的行arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub在SLIP服务器的ARP表中加入了一个表项.这个ARP项使得 每当这个以太网上的其它IP节点对SLIP客户端IP地址进行ARP请求时,SLIP服务器会以自已的以太网MAC地址作为回应 .

当使用以上的例子时, 一定要将 以太网MAC地址(00:11:22:33:44:55)替换成你系统网卡的MAC地址,否则``ARP代理''将 完全无法工作!你可以查看netstat -i输出结果以取得以太网MAC地址; 输出的第二行应该是这样:

ed0   1500  <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a         191923 0   129457     0   116

这行表明这个系统的以太网MAC地址是00:02:c1:28:5f:4a --netstat -i输出的以太网MAC地址必须改成用冒号隔开,并且要单个十六进数前加上. 这是arp(8)要求的格式; 参考arp(8) 的联机手册以获取完整的使用方法.

Note: 创建 /etc/sliphome/slip.login和 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout时,一定要设置 ``执行(execute)''位 (chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) ,否则 sliplogin将无法执行它.

18.7.2.4.3. slip.logout配置

/etc/sliphome/slip.logout并不是必需的 (除非你使用了``ARP代理''),如果你准备创建它,这里有一个基本的 slip.logout 脚本的例子 :

#!/bin/sh -
#
#       slip.logout

#
# logout file for a slip line.  sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
#      1        2         3        4          5         6     7-n
#   slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down

If you are using ``proxy ARP'', you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client:

#!/bin/sh -
#
#       @(#)slip.logout

#
# logout file for a slip line.  sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
#      1        2         3        4          5         6     7-n
#   slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down
# Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client
/usr/sbin/arp -d $5

命令arp -d $5 删除slip.login在SLIP客户登录时添加的ARP项 .

再次强调:确保你创建/etc/sliphome/slip.logout时设置了执行位 (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout).

18.7.2.5. 路由考虑

如果你不使用``ARP代理''的 方式来路由SLIP客户端与网络的其余部分(可能是Internet)之间的数据包, 你就必须通过SLIP服务器向最近的默认路由器添加静态路由以路由你的SLIP客户子网.

18.7.2.5.1. 静态路由

向你最近的默认路由添加一个静态路由可以说是很麻烦 (或者说是不可能,如果你没有权限这么做).如果在你的组织中多路由器网络,有些路由器(比如Cisco和Proteon生产的)不但要配置指向SLIP子网的路由,而且还需要被告知将哪些静态路由传给其它的路由器. 所以一些专家意见和问题解答对于使static-route-based routing 正常工作是有必要的.

18.7.2.5.2. 运行GateD®

Note: GateD®现在是一个私有软件,无法取得它的源代码 ( GateD上有更多的信息 ).This section only exists to ensure backwards compatibility for those that are still using an older version.

为了避免静态路由使你头疼,你可以在FreeBSD SLIP服务器上安装 GateD ,然后配置它使用合适的路由协议 (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP)以告知其它路由器有关SLIP子网的信息. 你需要编写一个名为 /etc/gated.conf 文件来配置你的gated;这里有一个样例,与作者所使用的相同:

#
# gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5
# Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface
#
#
# tracing options
#
traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ;

rip yes {
  interface sl noripout noripin ;
  interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ;
  traceoptions route ;
} ;

#
# Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel:
kernel {
  traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ;
} ;

#
# Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP
#

export proto rip interface ed {
  proto direct {
      xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections
  } ;
} ;

#
# Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces

import proto rip interface ed {
  all ;
} ;

以上这个gated.conf 文件 通过RIP向以太网广播有关SLIP子网的信息xxx.xxx.yy; 如果你使用的以太网驱动与ed不同 你需要将ed改成合适的接口. 这个示例文件也设置了将跟踪信息写入/var/tmp/gated.output 以诊断GateD的活动;如果GateD工作正常, 你当然也可以关闭跟踪选项.要把xxx.xxx.yy改成实际的SLIP子网网络地址 (确保同时更改了 proto direct中的掩码 ).

一旦你在系统上安装并配置了 GateD,你需要告知 FreeBSDGateD的启动脚本以代替 routed. 最古老的做法是在/etc/rc.conf中设置 router router_flags变量. 参考 GateD的联机手册以获得有关命令行参数的信息.

Chapter 19. Advanced Networking

19.1. Synopsis

This chapter will cover some of the more frequently used network services on UNIX systems. We will cover how to define, set up, test and maintain all of the network services that FreeBSD utilizes. In addition, there have been example configuration files included throughout this chapter for you to benefit from.

After reading this chapter, you will know:

  • The basics of gateways and routes.

  • How to make FreeBSD act as a bridge.

  • How to set up a network filesystem.

  • How to set up network booting on a diskless machine.

  • How to set up a network information server for sharing user accounts.

  • How to set up automatic network settings using DHCP.

  • How to set up a domain name server.

  • How to synchronize the time and date, and set up a time server, with the NTP protocol.

  • How to set up network address translation.

  • How to manage the inetd daemon.

  • How to connect two computers via PLIP.

  • How to set up IPv6 on a FreeBSD machine.

Before reading this chapter, you should:

  • Understand the basics of the /etc/rc scripts.

  • Be familiar with basic network terminology.

19.2. Gateways and Routes

Contributed by Coranth Gryphon.

For one machine to be able to find another over a network, there must be a mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is called routing. A ``route'' is a defined pair of addresses: a ``destination'' and a ``gateway''. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this destination, communicate through this gateway. There are three types of destinations: individual hosts, subnets, and ``default''. The ``default route'' is used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called ``links''), and Ethernet hardware addresses (MAC addresses).

19.2.1. An Example

To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the following example from netstat:

% netstat -r
Routing tables

Destination      Gateway            Flags     Refs     Use     Netif Expire

default          outside-gw         UGSc       37      418      ppp0
localhost        localhost          UH          0      181       lo0
test0            0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f   UHLW        5    63288       ed0     77
10.20.30.255     link#1             UHLW        1     2421
example.com      link#1             UC          0        0
host1            0:e0:a8:37:8:1e    UHLW        3     4601       lo0
host2            0:e0:a8:37:8:1e    UHLW        0        5       lo0 =>
host2.example.com link#1             UC          0        0
224              link#1             UC          0        0

The first two lines specify the default route (which we will cover in the next section) and the localhost route.

The interface (Netif column) that this routing table specifies to use for localhost is lo0, also known as the loopback device. This says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it started.

The next thing that stands out are the addresses beginning with 0:e0:. These are Ethernet hardware addresses, which are also known as MAC addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts (test0 in the example) on the local Ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the Ethernet interface, ed0. There is also a timeout (Expire column) associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of time. When this happens, the route to this host will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path determination.

FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30, and example.com is the domain name associated with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers to the first Ethernet card in the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified for those.

Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called routed. If this is not run, then only routes which are statically defined (i.e. entered explicitly) will exist.

The host1 line refers to our host, which it knows by Ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface (lo0) rather than sending it out over the Ethernet interface.

The two host2 lines are an example of what happens when we use an ifconfig(8) alias (see the section on Ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The => symbol after the lo0 interface says that not only are we using the loopback (since this address also refers to the local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local network will simply have a link#1 line for such routes.

The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with multicasting, which will be covered in another section.

Finally, various attributes of each route can be seen in the Flags column. Below is a short table of some of these flags and their meanings:

U Up: The route is active.
H Host: The route destination is a single host.
G Gateway: Send anything for this destination on to this remote system, which will figure out from there where to send it.
S Static: This route was configured manually, not automatically generated by the system.
C Clone: Generates a new route based upon this route for machines we connect to. This type of route is normally used for local networks.
W WasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route.
L Link: Route involves references to Ethernet hardware.

19.2.2. Default Routes

When the local system needs to make a connection to a remote host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that interface.

If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the ``default'' route. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a c in the flags field. For hosts on a local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, DSL, cable modem, T1, or another network interface).

If you are configuring the default route for a machine which itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service Provider's (ISP) site.

Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common configuration:

[Local2]  <--ether-->  [Local1]  <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv]  <--ether-->  [T1-GW]
      

The hosts Local1 and Local2 are at your site. Local1 is connected to an ISP via a dial up PPP connection. This PPP server computer is connected through a local area network to another gateway computer through an external interface to the ISPs Internet feed.

The default routes for each of your machines will be:

Host Default Gateway Interface
Local2 Local1 Ethernet
Local1 T1-GW PPP

A common question is ``Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is connected to?''.

Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's local network for your side of the connection, routes for any other machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP server.

As a final note, it is common to use the address X.X.X.1 as the gateway address for your local network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C address space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was using 10.9.9 then the default routes would be:

Host Default Route
Local2 (10.20.30.2) Local1 (10.20.30.1)
Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) T1-GW (10.9.9.1)

19.2.3. Dual Homed Hosts

There is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area networks.

In one case, the machine has two Ethernet cards, each having an address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only have one Ethernet card, and be using ifconfig(8) aliasing. The former is used if two physically separate Ethernet networks are in use, the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically separate subnets.

Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as a router between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both directions.

If you want this machine to actually forward packets between the two interfaces, you need to tell FreeBSD to enable this ability.

19.2.4. Building a Router

A network router is simply a system that forwards packets from one interface to another. Internet standards and good engineering practice prevent the FreeBSD Project from enabling this by default in FreeBSD. You can enable this feature by changing the following variable to YES in rc.conf(5):

gateway_enable=YES          # Set to YES if this host will be a gateway

This option will set the sysctl(8) variable net.inet.ip.forwarding to 1. If you should need to stop routing temporarily, you can reset this to 0 temporarily.

Your new router will need routes to know where to send the traffic. If your network is simple enough you can use static routes. FreeBSD also comes with the standard BSD routing daemon routed(8), which speaks RIP (both version 1 and version 2) and IRDP. Support for BGP v4, OSPF v2, and other sophisticated routing protocols is available with the net/zebra package. Commercial products such as gated are also available for more complex network routing solutions.

Even when FreeBSD is configured in this way, it does not completely comply with the Internet standard requirements for routers. It comes close enough for ordinary use, however.

19.2.5. Routing Propagation

We have already talked about how we define our routes to the outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us.

We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will forward the packets inbound.

When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your ISP?

There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of connection to the Internet Backbone. The ``Backbone'' are the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network.

It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the path inward) for your site. This is known as route propagation.

19.2.6. Troubleshooting

Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command for trying to figure out where routing is breaking down is the traceroute(8) command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine (i.e. ping(8) fails).

The traceroute(8) command is run with the name of the remote host you are trying to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of connection.

For more information, see the manual page for traceroute(8).

19.2.7. Multicast Routing

FreeBSD supports both multicast applications and multicast routing natively. Multicast applications do not require any special configuration of FreeBSD; applications will generally run out of the box. Multicast routing requires that support be compiled into the kernel:

options MROUTING

In addition, the multicast routing daemon, mrouted(8) must be configured to set up tunnels and DVMRP via /etc/mrouted.conf. More details on multicast configuration may be found in the man pages for mrouted.

19.3. Wireless Networking

Written by Eric Anderson.

19.3.1. Introduction

It can be very useful to be able to use a computer without the annoyance of having a network cable attached at all times. FreeBSD can be used as a wireless client, and even as a wireless ``access point''.

19.3.2. Wireless Modes of Operation

There are two different ways to configure 802.11 wireless devices: BSS and IBSS.

19.3.2.1. BSS Mode

BSS mode is the mode that typically is used. BSS mode is also called infrastructure mode. In this mode, a number of wireless access points are connected to a wired network. Each wireless network has its own name. This name is called the SSID of the network.

Wireless clients connect to these wireless access points. The IEEE 802.11 standard defines the protocol that wireless networks use to connect. A wireless client can be tied to a specific network, when a SSID is set. A wireless client can also attach to any network by not explicitly setting a SSID.

19.3.2.2. IBSS Mode

IBSS mode, also called ad-hoc mode, is designed for point to point connections. There are actually two types of ad-hoc mode. One is IBSS mode, also called ad-hoc or IEEE ad-hoc mode. This mode is defined by the IEEE 802.11 standards. The second is called demo ad-hoc mode or Lucent ad-hoc mode (and sometimes, confusingly, ad-hoc mode). This is the old, pre-802.11 ad-hoc mode and should only be used for legacy installations. We will not cover either of the ad-hoc modes further.

19.3.3. Infrastructure Mode

19.3.3.1. Access Points

Access points are wireless networking devices that allow one or more wireless clients to use the device as a central hub. When using an access point, all clients communicate through the access point. Multiple access points are often used to cover a complete area such as a house, business, or park with a wireless network.

Access points typically have multiple network connections: the wireless card, and one or more wired Ethernet adapters for connection to the rest of the network.

Access points can either be purchased prebuilt, or you can build your own with FreeBSD and a supported wireless card. Several vendors make wireless access points and wireless cards with various features.

19.3.3.2. Building a FreeBSD Access Point

19.3.3.2.1. Requirements

In order to set up a wireless access point with FreeBSD, you need to have a compatible wireless card. Currently, only cards with the Prism chipset are supported. You will also need a wired network card that is supported by FreeBSD (this should not be difficult to find, FreeBSD supports a lot of different devices). For this guide, we will assume you want to bridge(4) all traffic between the wireless device and the network attached to the wired network card.

The hostap functionality that FreeBSD uses to implement the access point works best with certain versions of firmware. Prism 2 cards should use firmware version 1.3.4 or newer. Prism 2.5 and Prism 3 cards should use firmware 1.4.9. Older versions of the firmware way or may not function correctly. At this time, the only way to update cards is with Windows firmware update utilities available from your card's manufacturer.

19.3.3.2.2. Setting It Up

First, make sure your system can see the wireless card:

# ifconfig -a
wi0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
        inet6 fe80::202:2dff:fe2d:c938%wi0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x7
        inet 0.0.0.0 netmask 0xff000000 broadcast 255.255.255.255
        ether 00:09:2d:2d:c9:50
        media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect (DS/2Mbps)
        status: no carrier
        ssid ""
        stationname "FreeBSD Wireless node"
        channel 10 authmode OPEN powersavemode OFF powersavesleep 100
        wepmode OFF weptxkey 1

Do not worry about the details now, just make sure it shows you something to indicate you have a wireless card installed. If you have trouble seeing the wireless interface, and you are using a PC Card, you may want to check out pccardc(8) and pccardd(8) manual pages for more information.

Next, you will need to load a module in order to get the bridging part of FreeBSD ready for the access point. In order to load the bridge(4) module, simply run the following command:

# kldload bridge

It should not have produced any errors when loading the module. If it did, you may need to compile the bridge(4) code into your kernel. The Bridging section of the handbook should be able to help you accomplish that task.

Now that you have the bridging stuff done, we need to tell the FreeBSD kernel which interfaces to bridge together. We do that by using sysctl(8):

# sysctl net.link.ether.bridge=1
# sysctl net.link.ether.bridge_cfg="wi0 xl0"
# sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding=1

Now it is time for the wireless card setup.

The following command will set the card into an access point:

# ifconfig wi0 ssid my_net channel 11 media DS/11Mbps mediaopt hostap up stationname "FreeBSD AP"

The ifconfig(8) line brings the wi0 interface up, sets its SSID to my_net, and sets the station name to FreeBSD AP. The media DS/11Mbps sets the card into 11Mbps mode and is needed for any mediaopt to take effect. The mediaopt hostap option places the interface into access point mode. The channel 11 option sets the 802.11b channel to use. The wicontrol(8) man page has valid channel options for your regulatory domain.

Now you should have a complete functioning access point up and running. You are encouraged to read wicontrol(8), ifconfig(8), and wi(4) for further information.

It is also suggested that you read the section on encryption that follows.

19.3.3.2.3. Status Information

Once the access point is configured and operational, operators will want to see the clients that are associated with the access point. At any time, the operator may type:

# wicontrol -l
1 station:
00:09:b7:7b:9d:16  asid=04c0, flags=3<ASSOC,AUTH>, caps=1<ESS>, rates=f<1M,2M,5.5M,11M>, sig=38/15

This shows that there's one station associated, along with its parameters. The signal indicated should be used as a relative indication of strength only. Its translation to dBm or other units varies between different firmware revisions.

19.3.3.3. Clients

A wireless client is a system that accesses an access point or another client directly.

Typically, wireless clients only have one network device, the wireless networking card.

There are a few different ways to configure a wireless client. These are based on the different wireless modes, generally BSS (infrastructure mode, which requires an access point), and IBSS (ad-hoc, or peer-to-peer mode). In our example, we will use the most popular of the two, BSS mode, to talk to an access point.

19.3.3.3.1. Requirements

There is only one real requirement for setting up FreeBSD as a wireless client. You will need a wireless card that is supported by FreeBSD.

19.3.3.3.2. Setting Up a Wireless FreeBSD Client

You will need to know a few things about the wireless network you are joining before you start. In this example, we are joining a network that has a name of my_net, and encryption turned off.

Note: In this example, we are not using encryption, which is a dangerous situation. In the next section, you will learn how to turn on encryption, and why it is important to do so, and why some encryption technologies still do not completely protect you.

Make sure your card is recognized by FreeBSD:

# ifconfig -a
wi0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
        inet6 fe80::202:2dff:fe2d:c938%wi0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x7
        inet 0.0.0.0 netmask 0xff000000 broadcast 255.255.255.255
        ether 00:09:2d:2d:c9:50
        media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect (DS/2Mbps)
        status: no carrier
        ssid ""
        stationname "FreeBSD Wireless node"
        channel 10 authmode OPEN powersavemode OFF powersavesleep 100
        wepmode OFF weptxkey 1

Now, we will set the card to the correct settings for our network:

# ifconfig wi0 inet 192.168.0.20 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid my_net

Replace 192.168.0.20 and 255.255.255.0 with a valid IP address and netmask on your wired network. Remember, our access point is bridging the data between the wireless network, and the wired network, so it will appear to the other devices on your network that you are on the wired network just as they are.

Once you have done that, you should be able to ping hosts on the wired network just as if you were connected using a standard wired connection.

If you are experiencing problems with your wireless connection, check to make sure that your are associated (connected) to the access point:

# ifconfig wi0

should return some information, and you should see:

status: associated

If it does not show associated, then you may be out of range of the access point, do not have encryption on, or possibly have a configuration problem.

19.3.3.4. Encryption

Encryption on a wireless network is important because you no longer have the ability to keep the network contained in a well protected area. Your wireless data will be broadcast across your entire neighborhood, so anyone who cares to read it can. This is where encryption comes in. By encrypting the data that is sent over the airwaves, you make it much more difficult for any interested party to grab your data right out of the air.

The two most common ways to encrypt the data between your client and the access point, are WEP, and ipsec(4).

19.3.3.4.1. WEP

WEP is an abbreviation for Wired Equivalency Protocol. WEP is an attempt to make wireless networks as safe and secure as a wired network. Unfortunately, it has been cracked, and is fairly trivial to break. This also means it is not something to rely on when it comes to encrypting sensitive data.

It is better than nothing, so use the following to turn on WEP on your new FreeBSD access point:

# ifconfig wi0 inet up ssid my_net wepmode on wepkey 0x1234567890 media DS/11Mbps mediaopt hostap

And you can turn on WEP on a client with this command:

# ifconfig wi0 inet 192.168.0.20 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid my_net wepmode on wepkey 0x1234567890

Note that you should replace the 0x1234567890 with a more unique key.

19.3.3.4.2. IPsec

ipsec(4) is a much more robust and powerful tool for encrypting data across a network. This is definitely the preferred way to encrypt wireless data over a network. You can read more about ipsec(4) security and how to implement it in the IPsec section of the handbook.

19.3.3.5. Tools

There are a small number of tools available for use in debugging and setting up your wireless network, and here we will attempt to describe some of them and what they do.

19.3.3.5.1. The bsd-airtools Package

The bsd-airtools package is a complete toolset that includes wireless auditing tools for WEP key cracking, access point detection, etc.

The bsd-airtools utilities can be installed from the net/bsd-airtools port. Information on installing ports can be found in Chapter 4 of the handbook.

The program dstumbler is the packaged tool that allows for access point discovery and signal to noise ratio graphing. If you are having a hard time getting your access point up and running, dstumbler may help you get started.

To test your wireless network security, you may choose to use ``dweputils'' (dwepcrack, dwepdump and dwepkeygen) to help you determine if WEP is the right solution to your wireless security needs.

19.3.3.5.2. The wicontrol, ancontrol and raycontrol Utilities

These are the tools you use to control how your wireless card behaves on the wireless network. In the examples above, we have chosen to use wicontrol(8), since our wireless card is a wi0 interface. If you had a Cisco wireless device, it would come up as an0, and therefore you would use ancontrol(8).

19.3.3.5.3. The ifconfig Command

ifconfig(8) can be used to do many of the same options as wicontrol(8), however it does lack a few options. Check ifconfig(8) for command line parameters and options.

19.3.3.6. Supported Cards

19.3.3.6.1. Access Points

The only cards that are currently supported for BSS (as an access point) mode are devices based on the Prism 2, 2.5, or 3 chipsets. For a complete list, look at wi(4).

19.3.3.6.2. Clients

Almost all 802.11b wireless cards are currently supported under FreeBSD. Most cards based on Prism, Spectrum24, Hermes, Aironet, and Raylink will work as a wireless network card in IBSS (ad-hoc, peer-to-peer, and BSS) mode.

19.4. Bluetooth

Written by Pav Lucistnik.

19.4.1. Introduction

Bluetooth is a wireless technology for creating personal networks operating in the 2.4 GHz unlicensed band, with a range of 10 meters. Networks are usually formed ad-hoc from portable devices such as cellular phones, handhelds and laptops. Unlike the other popular wireless technology, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth offers higher level service profiles, e.g. FTP-like file servers, file pushing, voice transport, serial line emulation, and more.

The Bluetooth stack in FreeBSD is implemented using the Netgraph framework (see netgraph(4)). A broad variety of Bluetooth USB dongles is supported by the ng_ubt(4) driver. The Broadcom BCM2033 chip based Bluetooth devices are supported via the ubtbcmfw(4) and ng_ubt(4) drivers. The 3Com Bluetooth PC Card 3CRWB60-A is supported by the ng_bt3c(4) driver. Serial and UART based Bluetooth devices are supported via sio(4), ng_h4(4) and hcseriald(8). This chapter describes the use of the USB Bluetooth dongle. Bluetooth support is available in FreeBSD 5.0 and newer systems.

19.4.2. Plugging in the Device

By default Bluetooth device drivers are available as kernel modules. Before attaching a device, you will need to load the driver into the kernel.

# kldload ng_ubt

If the Bluetooth device is present in the system during system startup, load the module from /boot/loader.conf.

ng_ubt_load="YES"

Plug in your USB dongle. The output similar to the following will appear on the console (or in syslog).

ubt0: vendor 0x0a12 product 0x0001, rev 1.10/5.25, addr 2
ubt0: Interface 0 endpoints: interrupt=0x81, bulk-in=0x82, bulk-out=0x2
ubt0: Interface 1 (alt.config 5) endpoints: isoc-in=0x83, isoc-out=0x3,
      wMaxPacketSize=49, nframes=6, buffer size=294

Copy /usr/share/examples/netgraph/bluetooth/rc.bluetooth into some convenient place, like /etc/rc.bluetooth. This script is used to start and stop the Bluetooth stack. It is a good idea to stop the stack before unplugging the device, but it is not (usually) fatal. When starting the stack, you will receive output similar to the following:

# /etc/rc.bluetooth start ubt0
BD_ADDR: 00:02:72:00:d4:1a
Features: 0xff 0xff 0xf 00 00 00 00 00
<3-Slot> <5-Slot> <Encryption> <Slot offset>
<Timing accuracy> <Switch> <Hold mode> <Sniff mode>
<Park mode> <RSSI> <Channel quality> <SCO link>
<HV2 packets> <HV3 packets> <u-law log> <A-law log> <CVSD>
<Paging scheme> <Power control> <Transparent SCO data>
Max. ACL packet size: 192 bytes
Number of ACL packets: 8
Max. SCO packet size: 64 bytes
Number of SCO packets: 8

19.4.3. Host Controller Interface (HCI)

Host Controller Interface (HCI) provides a command interface to the baseband controller and link manager, and access to hardware status and control registers. This interface provides a uniform method of accessing the Bluetooth baseband capabilities. HCI layer on the Host exchanges data and commands with the HCI firmware on the Bluetooth hardware. The Host Controller Transport Layer (i.e. physical bus) driver provides both HCI layers with the ability to exchange information with each other.

A single Netgraph node of type hci is created for a single Bluetooth device. The HCI node is normally connected to the Bluetooth device driver node (downstream) and the L2CAP node (upstream). All HCI operations must be performed on the HCI node and not on the device driver node. Default name for the HCI node is ``devicehci''. For more details refer to the ng_hci(4) man page.

One of the most common tasks is discovery of Bluetooth devices in RF proximity. This operation is called inquiry. Inquiry and other HCI realated operations are done with the hccontrol(8) utility. The example below shows how to find out which Bluetooth devices are in range. You should receive the list of devices in a few seconds. Note that a remote device will only answer the inquiry if it put into discoverable mode.

% hccontrol -n ubt0hci inquiry
Inquiry result, num_responses=1
Inquiry result #0
       BD_ADDR: 00:80:37:29:19:a4
       Page Scan Rep. Mode: 0x1
       Page Scan Period Mode: 00
       Page Scan Mode: 00
       Class: 52:02:04
       Clock offset: 0x78ef
Inquiry complete. Status: No error [00]

BD_ADDR is unique address of a Bluetooth device, similar to MAC addresses of a network card. This address is needed for further communication with a device. It is possible to assign human readable name to a BD_ADDR. The /etc/bluetooth/hosts file contains information regarding the known Bluetooth hosts. The following example shows how to obtain human readable name that was assigned to the remote device.

% hccontrol -n ubt0hci remote_name_request 00:80:37:29:19:a4
BD_ADDR: 00:80:37:29:19:a4
Name: Pav's T39

If you perform an inquiry on a remote Bluetooth device, it will find your computer as ``your.host.name (ubt0)''. The name assigned to the local device can be changed at any time.

The Bluetooth system provides a point-to-point connection (only two Bluetooth units involved), or a point-to-multipoint connection. In the point-to-multipoint connection the connection is shared among several Bluetooth devices. The following example shows how to obtain the list of active baseband connections for the local device.

% hccontrol -n ubt0hci read_connection_list
Remote BD_ADDR    Handle Type Mode Role Encrypt Pending Queue State
00:80:37:29:19:a4     41  ACL    0 MAST    NONE       0     0 OPEN

A connection handle is useful when termination of the baseband connection is required. Note, that it is normally not required to do it by hand. The stack will automatically terminate inactive baseband connections.

# hccontrol -n ubt0hci disconnect 41
Connection handle: 41
Reason: Connection terminated by local host [0x16]

Refer to hccontrol help for a complete listing of available HCI commands. Most of the HCI commands do not require superuser privileges.

19.4.4. Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP)

Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) provides connection-oriented and connectionless data services to upper layer protocols with protocol multiplexing capability and segmentation and reassembly operation. L2CAP permits higher level protocols and applications to transmit and receive L2CAP data packets up to 64 kilobytes in length.

L2CAP is based around the concept of channels. Channel is a logical connection on top of baseband connection. Each channel is bound to a single protocol in a many-to-one fashion. Multiple channels can be bound to the same protocol, but a channel cannot be bound to multiple protocols. Each L2CAP packet received on a channel is directed to the appropriate higher level protocol. Multiple channels can share the same baseband connection.

A single Netgraph node of type l2cap is created for a single Bluetooth device. The L2CAP node is normally connected to the Bluetooth HCI node (downstream) and Bluetooth sockets nodes (upstream). Default name for the L2CAP node is ``devicel2cap''. For more details refer to the ng_l2cap(4) man page.

A useful command is l2ping(8), which can be used to ping other devices. Some Bluetooth implementations might not return all of the data sent to them, so 0 bytes in the following example is normal.

# l2ping -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=0 time=48.633 ms result=0
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=1 time=37.551 ms result=0
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=2 time=28.324 ms result=0
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=3 time=46.150 ms result=0

The l2control(8) utility is used to perform various operations on L2CAP nodes. This example shows how to obtain the list of logical connections (channels) and the list of baseband connections for the local device.

% l2control -a 00:02:72:00:d4:1a read_channel_list
L2CAP channels:
Remote BD_ADDR     SCID/ DCID   PSM  IMTU/ OMTU State
00:07:e0:00:0b:ca    66/   64     3   132/  672 OPEN
% l2control -a 00:02:72:00:d4:1a read_connection_list
L2CAP connections:
Remote BD_ADDR    Handle Flags Pending State
00:07:e0:00:0b:ca     41 O           0 OPEN

Another diagnostic tool is btsockstat(1). It does a job similar to as netstat(1) does, but for Bluetooth network-related data structures. The example below shows the same logical connection as l2control(8) above.

% btsockstat
Active L2CAP sockets
PCB      Recv-Q Send-Q Local address/PSM       Foreign address   CID   State
c2afe900      0      0 00:02:72:00:d4:1a/3     00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 66    OPEN
Active RFCOMM sessions
L2PCB    PCB      Flag MTU   Out-Q DLCs State
c2afe900 c2b53380 1    127   0     Yes  OPEN
Active RFCOMM sockets
PCB      Recv-Q Send-Q Local address     Foreign address   Chan DLCI State
c2e8bc80      0    250 00:02:72:00:d4:1a 00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 3    6    OPEN

19.4.5. RFCOMM Protocol

The RFCOMM protocol provides emulation of serial ports over the L2CAP protocol. The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS 07.10. RFCOMM is a simple transport protocol, with additional provisions for emulating the 9 circuits of RS-232 (EIATIA-232-E) serial ports. The RFCOMM protocol supports up to 60 simultaneous connections (RFCOMM channels) between two Bluetooth devices.

For the purposes of RFCOMM, a complete communication path involves two applications running on different devices (the communication endpoints) with a communication segment between them. RFCOMM is intended to cover applications that make use of the serial ports of the devices in which they reside. The communication segment is a Bluetooth link from one device to another (direct connect).

RFCOMM is only concerned with the connection between the devices in the direct connect case, or between the device and a modem in the network case. RFCOMM can support other configurations, such as modules that communicate via Bluetooth wireless technology on one side and provide a wired interface on the other side.

In FreeBSD the RFCOMM protocol is implemented at the Bluetooth sockets layer.

19.4.6. Pairing of Devices

By default, Bluetooth communication is not authenticated, and any device can talk to any other device. A Bluetooth device (for example, cellular phone) may choose to require authentication to provide a particular service (for example, Dial-Up service). Bluetooth authentication is normally done with PIN codes. A PIN code is an ASCII string up to 16 characters in length. User is required to enter the same PIN code on both devices. Once user has entered the PIN code, both devices will generate a link key. After that the link key can be stored either in the devices themselves or in a persistent storage. Next time both devices will use previously generated link key. The described above procedure is called pairing. Note that if the link key is lost by any device then pairing must be repeated.

The hcsecd(8) daemon is responsible for handling of all Bluetooth authentication requests. The default configuration file is /etc/bluetooth/hcsecd.conf. An example section for a cellular phone with the PIN code arbitrarily set to ``1234'' is shown below.

device {
        bdaddr  00:80:37:29:19:a4;
        name    "Pav's T39";
        key     nokey;
        pin     "1234";
      }

There is no limitation on PIN codes (except length). Some devices (for example Bluetooth headsets) may have a fixed PIN code built in. The -d switch forces the hcsecd(8) daemon to stay in the foreground, so it is easy to see what is happening. Set the remote device to receive pairing and initiate the Bluetooth connection to the remote device. The remote device should say that pairing was accepted, and request the PIN code. Enter the same PIN code as you have in hcsecd.conf. Now your PC and the remote device are paired. Alternatively, you can initiate pairing on the remote device. Below in the sample hcsecd output.

hcsecd[16484]: Got Link_Key_Request event from 'ubt0hci', remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
hcsecd[16484]: Found matching entry, remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4, name 'Pav's T39', link key doesn't exist
hcsecd[16484]: Sending Link_Key_Negative_Reply to 'ubt0hci' for remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
hcsecd[16484]: Got PIN_Code_Request event from 'ubt0hci', remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
hcsecd[16484]: Found matching entry, remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4, name 'Pav's T39', PIN code exists
hcsecd[16484]: Sending PIN_Code_Reply to 'ubt0hci' for remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4

19.4.7. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)

The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) provides the means for client applications to discover the existence of services provided by server applications as well as the attributes of those services. The attributes of a service include the type or class of service offered and the mechanism or protocol information needed to utilize the service.

SDP involves communication between a SDP server and a SDP client. The server maintains a list of service records that describe the characteristics of services associated with the server. Each service record contains information about a single service. A client may retrieve information from a service record maintained by the SDP server by issuing a SDP request. If the client, or an application associated with the client, decides to use a service, it must open a separate connection to the service provider in order to utilize the service. SDP provides a mechanism for discovering services and their attributes, but it does not provide a mechanism for utilizing those services.

Normally, a SDP client searches for services based on some desired characteristics of the services. However, there are times when it is desirable to discover which types of services are described by an SDP server's service records without any a priori information about the services. This process of looking for any offered services is called browsing.

Currently Bluetooth SDP server and client are implemented in a third-party package sdp-1.5 that can be downloaded from here. The sdptool is a command line SDP client. The following example shows how to perform a SDP browse query.

# sdptool browse 00:80:37:29:19:a4
Browsing 00:80:37:29:19:A4 ...
Service Name: Dial-up Networking
Protocol Descriptor List:
 "L2CAP" (0x0100)
 "RFCOMM" (0x0003)
   Channel: 1

Service Name: Fax
Protocol Descriptor List:
 "L2CAP" (0x0100)
 "RFCOMM" (0x0003)
   Channel: 2

Service Name: Voice gateway
Service Class ID List:
 "Headset Audio Gateway" (0x1112)
 "Generic Audio" (0x1203)
Protocol Descriptor List:
 "L2CAP" (0x0100)
 "RFCOMM" (0x0003)
   Channel: 3

... and so on. Note that each service has a list of attributes (RFCOMM channel for example). Depending on the service you might need to make a note of some of the attributes. Some Bluetooth implementations do not support service browsing and may return an empty list. In this case it is possible to search for the specific service. The example below shows how to search for the OBEX Object Push (OPUSH) service.

# sdptool search --bdaddr 00:07:e0:00:0b:ca OPUSH

Offering services on FreeBSD to Bluetooth clients is done with the sdpd server.

# sdpd

The sdptool is also used to register a service with the local SDP server. The example below shows how to register the Network Access with PPP (LAN) service. Note that some services require attributes (RFCOMM channel for example).

# sdptool add --channel=7 LAN

The list of services registered with local SDP server can be obtained by issuing SDP browse query to a ``special'' BD_ADDR.

# sdptool browse ff:ff:ff:00:00:00

19.4.8. Dial-Up Networking (DUN) and Network Access with PPP (LAN) Profiles

The Dial-Up Networking (DUN) profile is mostly used with modems and cellular phones. The scenarios covered by this profile are the following:

  • use of a cellular phone or modem by a computer as a wireless modem for connecting to a dial-up internet access server, or using other dial-up services;

  • use of a cellular phone or modem by a computer to receive data calls.

Network Access with PPP (LAN) profile can be used in the following situations:

  • LAN access for a single Bluetooth device;

  • LAN access for multiple Bluetooth devices;

  • PC to PC (using PPP networking over serial cable emulation).

In FreeBSD both profiles are implemented with ppp(8) and rfcomm_pppd(8) - a wrapper that converts RFCOMM Bluetooth connection into something PPP can operate with. Before any profile can be used, a new PPP label in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf must be created. Consult rfcomm_pppd(8) manual page for examples.

In the following example rfcomm_pppd(8) will be used to open RFCOMM connection to remote device with BD_ADDR 00:80:37:29:19:a4 on DUN RFCOMM channel. The actual RFCOMM channel number will be obtained from the remote device via SDP. It is possible to specify RFCOMM channel by hand, and in this case rfcomm_pppd(8) will not perform SDP query. Use sdptool to find out RFCOMM channel on the remote device.

# rfcomm_pppd -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4 -c -C dun -l rfcomm-dialup

In order to provide Network Access with PPP (LAN) service sdpd server must be running. It is also required to register LAN service with the local SDP server. Note that LAN service requires RFCOMM channel attribute. A new entry for LAN clients must be created in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. Consult rfcomm_pppd(8) manual page for examples. Finally, RFCOMM PPP server must be running and listening on the same RFCOMM channel as registered with the local SDP server. The example below shows how to start RFCOMM PPP server.

# rfcomm_pppd -s -C 7 -l rfcomm-server

19.4.9. OBEX Push (OPUSH) Profile

OBEX is a widely used protocol for simple file transfers between mobile devices. Its main use is in infrared communication, where it is used for generic file transfers between notebooks or Palm handhelds, and for sending business cards or calendar entries between cellular phones and other devices with PIM applications.

The OBEX server and client are implemented as a third-party package obexapp-1.0 that can be downloaded from here. The package requires the openobex library (included) and the devel/glib12 port. Note that obexapp does not require root privileges to operate.

OBEX client is used to push and/or pull objects from the OBEX server. An object can, for example, be a business card or an appointment. The OBEX client can obtain RFCOMM channel number from the remote device via SDP. This can be done by specifying service name instead of RFCOMM channel number. Supported service names are: IrMC, FTRN and OPUSH. It is possible to specify RFCOMM channel as a number. Below is an example of an OBEX session, where device information object is pulled from the cellular phone, and a new object (business card) is pushed into the phone's directory.

% obexapp -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4 -C IrMC
obex> get
get: remote file> telecom/devinfo.txt
get: local file> devinfo-t39.txt
Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)
obex> put
put: local file> new.vcf
put: remote file> new.vcf
Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)
obex> di
Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)

In order to provide OBEX Push service, sdpd server must be running. It is also required to register OPUSH service with the local SDP server. Note that OPUSH service requires RFCOMM channel attribute. A root folder, where all incoming objects will be stored, must be created. The default path to the root folder is /var/spool/obex. Finally, OBEX server must be running and listening on the same RFCOMM channel as registered with the local SDP server. The example below shows how to start OBEX server.

# obexapp -s -C 10

19.4.10. Serial Port (SP) Profile

The Serial Port (SP) profile allows Bluetooth device to perform RS232 (or similar) serial cable emulation. The scenario covered by this profile deals with legacy applications using Bluetooth as a cable replacement, through a virtual serial port abstraction.

The rfcomm_sppd(1) utility implements the Serial Port profile. Pseudo tty is used as a virtual serial port abstraction. The example below shows how to connect to a remote device Serial Port service. Note that you do not have to specify RFCOMM channel - rfcomm_sppd(1) can obtain it from the remote device via SDP. If you would like to override this, specify RFCOMM channel in the command line.

# rfcomm_sppd -a 00:07:E0:00:0B:CA -t /dev/ttyp6
rfcomm_sppd[94692]: Starting on /dev/ttyp6...

Once connected pseudo tty can be used as serial port.

# cu -l ttyp6

19.4.11. Troubleshooting

19.4.11.1. A remote device cannot connect

Some older Bluetooth devices do not support role switching. By default, when FreeBSD is accepting a new connection, it tries to perform role switch and become a master. Devices, which do not support this will not be able to connect. Note the role switching is performed when a new connection is being established, so it is not possible to ask the remote device if it does support role switching. There is a HCI option to disable role switching on the local side.

# hccontrol -n ubt0hci write_node_role_switch 0

19.4.11.2. Something is going wrong, can I see what exactly is happening?

Yes, you can. Use the hcidump-1.5 third-party package that can be downloaded from from here. The hcidump utility is similar to tcpdump(1). It can used to display the content of the Bluetooth packets on the terminal and to dump the Bluetooth packets to a file.

19.5. Bridging

Written by Steve Peterson.

19.5.1. Introduction

It is sometimes useful to divide one physical network (such as an Ethernet segment) into two separate network segments without having to create IP subnets and use a router to connect the segments together. A device that connects two networks together in this fashion is called a ``bridge''. A FreeBSD system with two network interface cards can act as a bridge.

The bridge works by learning the MAC layer addresses (Ethernet addresses) of the devices on each of its network interfaces. It forwards traffic between two networks only when its source and destination are on different networks.

In many respects, a bridge is like an Ethernet switch with very few ports.

19.5.2. Situations Where Bridging Is Appropriate

There are two common situations in which a bridge is used today.

19.5.2.1. High Traffic on a Segment

Situation one is where your physical network segment is overloaded with traffic, but you do not want for whatever reason to subnet the network and interconnect the subnets with a router.

Let us consider an example of a newspaper where the Editorial and Production departments are on the same subnetwork. The Editorial users all use server A for file service, and the Production users are on server B. An Ethernet is used to connect all users together, and high loads on the network are slowing things down.

If the Editorial users could be segregated on one network segment and the Production users on another, the two network segments could be connected with a bridge. Only the network traffic destined for interfaces on the ``other'' side of the bridge would be sent to the other network, reducing congestion on each network segment.

19.5.2.2. Filtering/Traffic Shaping Firewall

The second common situation is where firewall functionality is needed without IP Masquerading (NAT).

An example is a small company that is connected via DSL or ISDN to their ISP. They have a 13 globally-accessible IP addresses from their ISP and have 10 PCs on their network. In this situation, using a router-based firewall is difficult because of subnetting issues.

A bridge-based firewall can be configured and dropped into the path just downstream of their DSL/ISDN router without any IP numbering issues.

19.5.3. Configuring a Bridge

19.5.3.1. Network Interface Card Selection

A bridge requires at least two network cards to function. Unfortunately, not all network interface cards as of FreeBSD 4.0 support bridging. Read bridge(4) for details on the cards that are supported.

Install and test the two network cards before continuing.

19.5.3.2. Kernel Configuration Changes

To enable kernel support for bridging, add the:

options BRIDGE

statement to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild your kernel.

19.5.3.3. Firewall Support

If you are planning to use the bridge as a firewall, you will need to add the IPFIREWALL option as well. Read Section 10.8 for general information on configuring the bridge as a firewall.

If you need to allow non-IP packets (such as ARP) to flow through the bridge, there is an undocumented firewall option that must be set. This option is IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT. Note that this changes the default rule for the firewall to accept any packet. Make sure you know how this changes the meaning of your ruleset before you set it.

19.5.3.4. Traffic Shaping Support

If you want to use the bridge as a traffic shaper, you will need to add the DUMMYNET option to your kernel configuration. Read dummynet(4) for further information.

19.5.4. Enabling the Bridge

Add the line:

net.link.ether.bridge=1

to /etc/sysctl.conf to enable the bridge at runtime, and the line:

net.link.ether.bridge_cfg=if1,if2

to enable bridging on the specified interfaces (replace if1 and if2 with the names of your two network interfaces). If you want the bridged packets to be filtered by ipfw(8), you should add:

net.link.ether.bridge_ipfw=1

as well.

19.5.5. Other Information

If you want to be able to telnet into the bridge from the network, it is OK to assign one of the network cards an IP address. The consensus is that assigning both cards an address is a bad idea.

If you have multiple bridges on your network, there cannot be more than one path between any two workstations. Technically, this means that there is no support for spanning tree link management.

A bridge can add latency to your ping times, especially for traffic from one segment to another.

19.6. NFS

Reorganized and enhanced by Tom Rhodes. Written by Bill Swingle.

Among the many different filesystems that FreeBSD supports is the Network File System, also known as NFS. NFS allows a system to share directories and files with others over a network. By using NFS, users and programs can access files on remote systems almost as if they were local files.

Some of the most notable benefits that NFS can provide are:

  • Local workstations use less disk space because commonly used data can be stored on a single machine and still remain accessible to others over the network.

  • There is no need for users to have separate home directories on every network machine. Home directories could be set up on the NFS server and made available throughout the network.

  • Storage devices such as floppy disks, CDROM drives, and ZIP drives can be used by other machines on the network. This may reduce the number of removable media drives throughout the network.

19.6.1. How NFS Works

NFS consists of at least two main parts: a server and one or more clients. The client remotely accesses the data that is stored on the server machine. In order for this to function properly a few processes have to be configured and running:

Note: In FreeBSD 5.X, the portmap utility has been replaced with the rpcbind utility. Thus, in FreeBSD 5.X the user is required to replace every instance of portmap with rpcbind in the forthcoming examples.

The server has to be running the following daemons:

Daemon Description
nfsd The NFS daemon which services requests from the NFS clients.
mountd The NFS mount daemon which carries out the requests that nfsd(8) passes on to it.
portmap The portmapper daemon allows NFS clients to discover which port the NFS server is using.

The client can also run a daemon, known as nfsiod. The nfsiod daemon services the requests from the NFS server. This is optional, and improves performance, but is not required for normal and correct operation. See the nfsiod(8) manual page for more information.

19.6.2. Configuring NFS

NFS configuration is a relatively straightforward process. The processes that need to be running can all start at boot time with a few modifications to your /etc/rc.conf file.

On the NFS server, make sure that the following options are configured in the /etc/rc.conf file:

portmap_enable="YES"
nfs_server_enable="YES"
mountd_flags="-r"

mountd runs automatically whenever the NFS server is enabled.

On the client, make sure this option is present in /etc/rc.conf:

nfs_client_enable="YES"

The /etc/exports file specifies which filesystems NFS should export (sometimes referred to as ``share''). Each line in /etc/exports specifies a filesystem to be exported and which machines have access to that filesystem. Along with what machines have access to that filesystem, access options may also be specified. There are many such options that can be used in this file but only a few will be mentioned here. You can easily discover other options by reading over the exports(5) manual page.

Here are a few example /etc/exports entries:

The following examples give an idea of how to export filesystems, although the settings may be different depending on your environment and network configuration. For instance, to export the /cdrom directory to three example machines that have the same domain name as the server (hence the lack of a domain name for each) or have entries in your /etc/hosts file. The -ro flag makes the exported filesystem read-only. With this flag, the remote system will not be able to write any changes to the exported filesystem.

/cdrom -ro host1 host2 host3

The following line exports /home to three hosts by IP address. This is a useful setup if you have a private network without a DNS server configured. Optionally the /etc/hosts file could be configured for internal hostnames; please review hosts(5) for more information. The -alldirs flag allows the subdirectories to be mount points. In other words, it will not mount the subdirectories but permit the client to mount only the directories that are required or needed.

/home  -alldirs  10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4

The following line exports /a so that two clients from different domains may access the filesystem. The -maproot=root flag allows the root user on the remote system to write data on the exported filesystem as root. If the -maproot=root flag is not specified, then even if a user has root access on the remote system, they will not be able to modify files on the exported filesystem.

/a  -maproot=root  host.example.com box.example.org

In order for a client to access an exported filesystem, the client must have permission to do so. Make sure the client is listed in your /etc/exports file.

In /etc/exports, each line represents the export information for one filesystem to one host. A remote host can only be specified once per filesystem, and may only have one default entry. For example, assume that /usr is a single filesystem. The following /etc/exports would be invalid:

/usr/src   client
/usr/ports client

One filesystem, /usr, has two lines specifying exports to the same host, client. The correct format for this situation is:

/usr/src /usr/ports  client

The properties of one filesystem exported to a given host must all occur on one line. Lines without a client specified are treated as a single host. This limits how you can export filesystems, but for most people this is not an issue.

The following is an example of a valid export list, where /usr and /exports are local filesystems:

# Export src and ports to client01 and client02, but only
# client01 has root privileges on it
/usr/src /usr/ports -maproot=root    client01
/usr/src /usr/ports               client02
# The client machines have root and can mount anywhere
# on /exports. Anyone in the world can mount /exports/obj read-only
/exports -alldirs -maproot=root      client01 client02
/exports/obj -ro

You must restart mountd whenever you modify /etc/exports so the changes can take effect. This can be accomplished by sending the HUP signal to the mountd process:

# kill -HUP `cat /var/run/mountd.pid`

Alternatively, a reboot will make FreeBSD set everything up properly. A reboot is not necessary though. Executing the following commands as root should start everything up.

On the NFS server:

# portmap
# nfsd -u -t -n 4
# mountd -r

On the NFS client:

# nfsiod -n 4

Now everything should be ready to actually mount a remote file system. In these examples the server's name will be server and the client's name will be client. If you only want to temporarily mount a remote filesystem or would rather test the configuration, just execute a command like this as root on the client:

# mount server:/home /mnt

This will mount the /home directory on the server at /mnt on the client. If everything is set up correctly you should be able to enter /mnt on the client and see all the files that are on the server.

If you want to automatically mount a remote filesystem each time the computer boots, add the filesystem to the /etc/fstab file. Here is an example:

server:/home   /mnt    nfs rw  0   0

The fstab(5) manual page lists all the available options.

19.6.3. Practical Uses

NFS has many practical uses. Some of the more common ones are listed below:

  • Set several machines to share a CDROM or other media among them. This is cheaper and often a more convenient method to install software on multiple machines.

  • On large networks, it might be more convenient to configure a central NFS server in which to store all the user home directories. These home directories can then be exported to the network so that users would always have the same home directory, regardless of which workstation they log in to.

  • Several machines could have a common /usr/ports/distfiles directory. That way, when you need to install a port on several machines, you can quickly access the source without downloading it on each machine.

19.6.4. Automatic Mounts with amd

Contributed by Wylie Stilwell. Rewritten by Chern Lee.

amd(8) (the automatic mounter daemon) automatically mounts a remote filesystem whenever a file or directory within that filesystem is accessed. Filesystems that are inactive for a period of time will also be automatically unmounted by amd. Using amd provides a simple alternative to permanent mounts, as permanent mounts are usually listed in /etc/fstab.

amd operates by attaching itself as an NFS server to the /host and /net directories. When a file is accessed within one of these directories, amd looks up the corresponding remote mount and automatically mounts it. /net is used to mount an exported filesystem from an IP address, while /host is used to mount an export from a remote hostname.

An access to a file within /host/foobar/usr would tell amd to attempt to mount the /usr export on the host foobar.

Example 19-1. Mounting an Export with amd

You can view the available mounts of a remote host with the showmount command. For example, to view the mounts of a host named foobar, you can use:

% showmount -e foobar
Exports list on foobar:
/usr                               10.10.10.0
/a                                 10.10.10.0
% cd /host/foobar/usr

As seen in the example, the showmount shows /usr as an export. When changing directories to /host/foobar/usr, amd attempts to resolve the hostname foobar and automatically mount the desired export.

amd can be started by the startup scripts by placing the following lines in /etc/rc.conf:

amd_enable="YES"

Additionally, custom flags can be passed to amd from the amd_flags option. By default, amd_flags is set to:

amd_flags="-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map"

The /etc/amd.map file defines the default options that exports are mounted with. The /etc/amd.conf file defines some of the more advanced features of amd.

Consult the amd(8) and amd.conf(5) manual pages for more information.

19.6.5. Problems Integrating with Other Systems

Contributed by John Lind.

Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it.

The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved.

Though the ``correct'' solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the server, include the option -w=1024 on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the NFS filesystem with the option -r=1024. These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the -o parameter of the mount command for manual mounts.

It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make certain that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing.

In the following examples, fastws is the host (interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, /sharedfs will be the exported NFS filesystem (see exports(5)), and /project will be the mount point on the client for the exported filesystem. In all cases, note that additional options, such as hard or soft and bg may be desirable in your application.

Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as the client in /etc/fstab on freebox:

fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0

As a manual mount command on freebox:

# mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project

Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server in /etc/fstab on fastws:

freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0

As a manual mount command on fastws:

# mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project

Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size.

For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS typically works with a ``block'' size of 8 k (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS ``block'' gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8 K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum.

By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation.

Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS ``units''. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged.

19.7. Diskless Operation

Updated by Jean-Fran鏾is Dock鑣.

A FreeBSD machine can boot over the network and operate without a local disk, using filesystems mounted from an NFS server. No system modification is necessary, beyond standard configuration files. Such a system is easy to set up because all the necessary elements are readily available:

  • There are at least two possible methods to load the kernel over the network:

    • PXE: The Intel Preboot Execution Environment system is a form of smart boot ROM built into some networking cards or motherboards. See pxeboot(8) for more details.

    • The etherboot port (net/etherboot) produces ROM-able code to boot kernels over the network. The code can be either burnt into a boot PROM on a network card, or loaded from a local floppy (or hard) disk drive, or from a running MS-DOS system. Many network cards are supported.

  • A sample script (/usr/share/examples/diskless/clone_root) eases the creation and maintenance of the workstation's root filesystem on the server. The script will probably require a little customization but it will get you started very quickly.

  • Standard system startup files exist in /etc to detect and support a diskless system startup.

  • Swapping, if needed, can be done either to an NFS file or to a local disk.

There are many ways to set up diskless workstations. Many elements are involved, and most can be customized to suit local taste. The following will describe the setup of a complete system, emphasizing simplicity and compatibility with the standard FreeBSD startup scripts. The system described has the following characteristics:

  • The diskless workstations use a shared read-only root filesystem, and a shared read-only /usr.

    The root filesystem is a copy of a standard FreeBSD root (typically the server's), with some configuration files overridden by ones specific to diskless operation or, possibly, to the workstation they belong to.

    The parts of the root which have to be writable are overlaid with mfs(8) filesystems. Any changes will be lost when the system reboots.

  • The kernel is loaded by etherboot , using DHCP (or BOOTP) and TFTP.

CautionAs described, this system is insecure. It should live in a protected area of a network, and be untrusted by other hosts.

19.7.1. Setup Instructions

19.7.1.1. Configuring DHCP/BOOTP

There are two protocols that are commonly used to boot a workstation that retrieves its configuration over the network: BOOTP and DHCP. They are used at several points in the workstation bootstrap:

  • etherboot uses DHCP (by default) or BOOTP (needs a configuration option) to find the kernel. (PXE uses DHCP).

  • The kernel uses BOOTP to locate the NFS root.

It is possible to configure a system to use only BOOTP. The bootpd(8) server program is included in the base FreeBSD system.

However, DHCP has a number of advantages over BOOTP (nicer configuration files, possibility of using PXE, plus many others not directly related to diskless operation), and we shall describe both a pure BOOTP, and a BOOTP+DHCP configuration, with an emphasis on the latter, which will use the ISC DHCP software package.

19.7.1.1.1. Configuration Using ISC DHCP

The isc-dhcp server can answer both BOOTP and DHCP requests.

As of release 4.4, isc-dhcp 3.0 is not part of the base system. You will first need to install the net/isc-dhcp3 port or the corresponding package. Please refer to Chapter 4 for general information about ports and packages.

Once isc-dhcp is installed, it needs a configuration file to run, (normally named /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf). Here follows a commented example:

          default-lease-time 600;
          max-lease-time 7200;
          authoritative;

          option domain-name "example.com";
          option domain-name-servers 192.168.4.1;
          option routers 192.168.4.1;

          subnet 192.168.4.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
            use-host-decl-names on; (1)
            option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0;
            option broadcast-address 192.168.4.255;

            host margaux {
              hardware ethernet 01:23:45:67:89:ab;
              fixed-address margaux.example.com;
              next-server 192.168.4.4;(2)
              filename "/tftpboot/kernel.diskless";(3)
              option root-path "192.168.4.4:/data/misc/diskless";(4)
            }
          }
(1)
This option tells dhcpd to send the value in the host declarations as the hostname for the diskless host. An alternate way would be to add an option host-name margaux inside the host declarations.
(2)
The next-server directive designates the TFTP server (the default is to use the same host as the DHCP server).
(3)
The filename directive defines the file that etherboot will load as a kernel.

Note: PXE appears to prefer a relative file name, and it loads pxeboot, not the kernel (option filename "pxeboot").

(4)
The root-path option defines the path to the root filesystem, in usual NFS notation.
19.7.1.1.2. Configuration Using BOOTP

Here follows an equivalent bootpd configuration. This would be found in /etc/bootptab.

Please note that etherboot must be compiled with the non-default option NO_DHCP_SUPPORT in order to use BOOTP, and that PXE needs DHCP. The only obvious advantage of bootpd is that it exists in the base system.

          .def100:\
            :hn:ht=1:sa=192.168.4.4:vm=rfc1048:\
            :sm=255.255.255.0:\
            :ds=192.168.4.1:\
            :gw=192.168.4.1:\
            :hd="/tftpboot":\
            :bf="/kernel.diskless":\
            :rp="192.168.4.4:/data/misc/diskless":

          margaux:ha=0123456789ab:tc=.def100

19.7.1.2. Preparing a Boot Program with Etherboot

Etherboot's Web site contains extensive documentation mainly intended for Linux systems, but nonetheless containing useful information. The following will just outline how you would use etherboot on a FreeBSD system.

You must first install the net/etherboot package or port. The etherboot port can normally be found in /usr/ports/net/etherboot. If the ports tree is installed on your system, just typing make in this directory should take care of everything. Else refer to Chapter 4 for information about ports and packages.

For our setup, we shall use a boot floppy. For other methods (PROM, or dos program), please refer to the etherboot documentation.

To make a boot floppy, insert a floppy in the drive on the machine where you installed etherboot, then change your current directory to the src directory in the etherboot tree and type:

     # gmake bin32/devicetype.fd0

devicetype depends on the type of the Ethernet card in the diskless workstation. Refer to the NIC file in the same directory to determine the right devicetype.

19.7.1.3. Configuring the TFTP and NFS Servers

You need to enable tftpd on the TFTP server:

  1. Create a directory from which tftpd will serve the files, e.g. /tftpboot.

  2. Add this line to your /etc/inetd.conf:

    tftp    dgram   udp     wait    root  /usr/libexec/tftpd    tftpd -s /tftpboot

    Note: It appears that at least some PXE versions want the TCP version of TFTP. In this case, add a second line, replacing dgram udp with stream tcp.

  3. Tell inetd to reread its configuration file:

    # kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`

You can place the tftpboot directory anywhere on the server. Make sure that the location is set in both inetd.conf and dhcpd.conf.

You also need to enable NFS and export the appropriate filesystem on the NFS server.

  1. Add this to /etc/rc.conf:

    nfs_server_enable="YES"

  2. Export the filesystem where the diskless root directory is located by adding the following to /etc/exports (adjust the volume mount point and replace margaux with the name of the diskless workstation):

    /data/misc -alldirs -ro margaux

  3. Tell mountd to reread its configuration file. If you actually needed to enable NFS in /etc/rc.conf at the first step, you probably want to reboot instead.

    # kill -HUP `cat /var/run/mountd.pid`

19.7.1.4. Building a Diskless Kernel

Create a kernel configuration file for the diskless client with the following options (in addition to the usual ones):

          options     BOOTP          # Use BOOTP to obtain IP address/hostname
          options     BOOTP_NFSROOT  # NFS mount root filesystem using BOOTP info
          options     BOOTP_COMPAT   # Workaround for broken bootp daemons.

You may also want to use BOOTP_NFSV3 and BOOTP_WIRED_TO (refer to LINT).

Build the kernel (See Chapter 9), and copy it to the tftp directory, under the name listed in dhcpd.conf.

19.7.1.5. Preparing the Root Filesystem

You need to create a root filesystem for the diskless workstations, in the location listed as root-path in dhcpd.conf.

The easiest way to do this is to use the /usr/share/examples/diskless/clone_root shell script. This script needs customization, at least to adjust the place where the filesystem will be created (the DEST variable).

Refer to the comments at the top of the script for instructions. They explain how the base filesystem is built, and how files may be selectively overridden by versions specific to diskless operation, to a subnetwork, or to an individual workstation. They also give examples for the diskless /etc/fstab and /etc/rc.conf files.

The README files in /usr/share/examples/diskless contain a lot of interesting background information, but, together with the other examples in the diskless directory, they actually document a configuration method which is distinct from the one used by clone_root and /etc/rc.diskless[12], which is a little confusing. Use them for reference only, except if you prefer the method that they describe, in which case you will need customized rc scripts.

19.7.1.6. Configuring Swap

If needed, a swap file located on the server can be accessed via NFS. The exact bootptab or dhcpd.conf options are not clearly documented at this time. The following configuration suggestions have been reported to work in some installations using isc-dhcp 3.0rc11.

  1. Add the following lines to dhcpd.conf:

                  # Global section
              option swap-path code 128 = string;
              option swap-size code 129 = integer 32;

              host margaux {
                ... # Standard lines, see above
                option swap-path "192.168.4.4:/netswapvolume/netswap";
                option swap-size 64000;
              }

    The idea is that, at least for a FreeBSD client, DHCP/BOOTP option code 128 is the path to the NFS swap file, and option code 129 is the swap size in kilobytes. Older versions of dhcpd allowed a syntax of option option-128 "..., which does not seem to work any more.

    /etc/bootptab would use the following syntax instead:

    T128="192.168.4.4:/netswapvolume/netswap":T129=64000

  2. On the NFS swap file server, create the swap file(s)

                  # mkdir /netswapvolume/netswap
              # cd /netswapvolume/netswap
              # dd if=/dev/zero bs=1024 count=64000 of=swap.192.168.4.6
              # chmod 0600 swap.192.168.4.6

    192.168.4.6 is the IP address for the diskless client.

  3. On the NFS swap file server, add the following line to /etc/exports:

             /netswapvolume  -maproot=0:10 -alldirs margaux

    Then tell mountd to reread the exports file, as above.

19.7.1.7. Miscellaneous Issues

19.7.1.7.1. Running with a Read-only /usr

If the diskless workstation is configured to run X, you will have to adjust the xdm configuration file, which puts the error log on /usr by default.

19.7.1.7.2. Using a Non-FreeBSD Server

When the server for the root filesystem is not running FreeBSD, you will have to create the root filesystem on a FreeBSD machine, then copy it to its destination, using tar or cpio.

In this situation, there are sometimes problems with the special files in /dev, due to differing major/minor integer sizes. A solution to this problem is to export a directory from the non-FreeBSD server, mount this directory onto a FreeBSD machine, and run MAKEDEV on the FreeBSD machine to create the correct device entries (FreeBSD 5.0 and later use devfs(5) to allocate device nodes transparently for the user, running MAKEDEV on these versions is useless).

19.8. ISDN

A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is Dan Kegel's ISDN Page.

A quick simple road map to ISDN follows:

  • If you live in Europe you might want to investigate the ISDN card section.

  • If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dial-up non-dedicated basis, you might look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change providers.

  • If you are connecting two LANs together, or connecting to the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, you might consider the stand alone router/bridge option.

Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most expensive.

19.8.1. ISDN Cards

Contributed by Hellmuth Michaelis.

FreeBSD's ISDN implementation supports only the DSS1/Q.931 (or Euro-ISDN) standard using passive cards. Starting with FreeBSD 4.4, some active cards are supported where the firmware also supports other signaling protocols; this also includes the first supported Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN card.

Isdn4bsd allows you to connect to other ISDN routers using either IP over raw HDLC or by using synchronous PPP: either by using kernel PPP with isppp, a modified sppp driver, or by using userland ppp(8). By using userland ppp(8), channel bonding of two or more ISDN B-channels is possible. A telephone answering machine application is also available as well as many utilities such as a software 300 Baud modem.

Some growing number of PC ISDN cards are supported under FreeBSD and the reports show that it is successfully used all over Europe and in many other parts of the world.

The passive ISDN cards supported are mostly the ones with the Infineon (formerly Siemens) ISAC/HSCX/IPAC ISDN chipsets, but also ISDN cards with chips from Cologne Chip (ISA bus only), PCI cards with Winbond W6692 chips, some cards with the Tiger300/320/ISAC chipset combinations and some vendor specific chipset based cards such as the AVM Fritz!Card PCI V.1.0 and the AVM Fritz!Card PnP.

Currently the active supported ISDN cards are the AVM B1 (ISA and PCI) BRI cards and the AVM T1 PCI PRI cards.

For documentation on isdn4bsd, have a look at /usr/share/examples/isdn/ directory on your FreeBSD system or at the homepage of isdn4bsd which also has pointers to hints, erratas and much more documentation such as the isdn4bsd handbook.

In case you are interested in adding support for a different ISDN protocol, a currently unsupported ISDN PC card or otherwise enhancing isdn4bsd, please get in touch with Hellmuth Michaelis .

For questions regarding the installation, configuration and troubleshooting isdn4bsd, a freebsd-isdn mailing list is available.

19.8.2. ISDN Terminal Adapters

Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular phone lines.

Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be used as a drop in replacement for a modem.

A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You will need to configure PPP exactly the same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as possible.

The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you with a static IP anymore. Most stand-alone routers are not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation.

TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for their features and stability of connection. This allows you to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you already have PPP set up. However, at the same time any problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist.

If you want maximum stability, use the kernel PPP option, not the user-land iijPPP.

The following TA's are known to work with FreeBSD.

  • Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro

  • Adtran

Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command set.

The real problem with external TA's is that, like modems, you need a good serial card in your computer.

You should read the FreeBSD Serial Hardware tutorial for a detailed understanding of serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous serial ports.

A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits you to 115.2 Kbs, even though you have a 128 Kbs connection. To fully utilize the 128 Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a synchronous serial card.

Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do is save you having to buy another serial cable and find another empty electrical socket.

A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a stand-alone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more flexible.

The choice of sync/TA v.s. stand-alone router is largely a religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives for the complete discussion.

19.8.3. Stand-alone ISDN Bridges/Routers

ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or any other operating system. For a more complete description of routing and bridging technology, please refer to a Networking reference book.

In the context of this page, the terms router and bridge will be used interchangeably.

As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet network, and manages its own connection to the other bridge/router. It has built in software to communicate via PPP and other popular protocols.

A router will allow you much faster throughput than a standard TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN connection.

The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, you should discuss your needs with them.

If you are planning to connect two LAN segments together, such as your home LAN to the office LAN, this is the simplest lowest maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will work.

For example to connect a home computer or branch office network to a head office network the following setup could be used.

Example 19-2. Branch Office or Home Network

Network uses a bus based topology with 10 base 2 Ethernet (``thinnet''). Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary.

If your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the stand-alone router directly.

Example 19-3. Head Office or Other LAN

Network uses a star topology with 10 base T Ethernet (``Twisted Pair'').

One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you to have 2 separate independent PPP connections to 2 separate sites at the same time. This is not supported on most TA's, except for specific (usually expensive) models that have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP, etc.

This can be a very useful feature if, for example, you have an dedicated ISDN connection at your office and would like to tap into it, but do not want to get another ISDN line at work. A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection (64 Kbps) to the Internet and use the other B channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for dial-in, dial-out or dynamically bonding (MPP, etc.) with the first B channel for more bandwidth.

An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just IP traffic. You can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you use.

19.9. NIS/YP

Written by Bill Swingle. Enhanced by Eric Ogren and Udo Erdelhoff.

19.9.1. What Is It?

NIS, which stands for Network Information Services, was developed by Sun Microsystems to centralize administration of UNIX (originally SunOS) systems. It has now essentially become an industry standard; all major UNIX like systems (Solaris, HP-UX, AIX®, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, etc) support NIS.

NIS was formerly known as Yellow Pages, but because of trademark issues, Sun changed the name. The old term (and yp) is still often seen and used.

It is a RPC-based client/server system that allows a group of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and add, remove or modify configuration data from a single location.

It is similar to the Windows NT® domain system; although the internal implementation of the two are not at all similar, the basic functionality can be compared.

19.9.2. Terms/Processes You Should Know

There are several terms and several important user processes that you will come across when attempting to implement NIS on FreeBSD, whether you are trying to create an NIS server or act as an NIS client:

Term Description
NIS domainname An NIS master server and all of its clients (including its slave servers) have a NIS domainname. Similar to an Windows NT domain name, the NIS domainname does not have anything to do with DNS.
portmap Must be running in order to enable RPC (Remote Procedure Call, a network protocol used by NIS). If portmap is not running, it will be impossible to run an NIS server, or to act as an NIS client.
ypbind ``Binds'' an NIS client to its NIS server. It will take the NIS domainname from the system, and using RPC, connect to the server. ypbind is the core of client-server communication in an NIS environment; if ypbind dies on a client machine, it will not be able to access the NIS server.
ypserv Should only be running on NIS servers; this is the NIS server process itself. If ypserv(8) dies, then the server will no longer be able to respond to NIS requests (hopefully, there is a slave server to take over for it). There are some implementations of NIS (but not the FreeBSD one), that do not try to reconnect to another server if the server it used before dies. Often, the only thing that helps in this case is to restart the server process (or even the whole server) or the ypbind process on the client.
rpc.yppasswdd Another process that should only be running on NIS master servers; this is a daemon that will allow NIS clients to change their NIS passwords. If this daemon is not running, users will have to login to the NIS master server and change their passwords there.

19.9.3. How Does It Work?

There are three types of hosts in an NIS environment: master servers, slave servers, and clients. Servers act as a central repository for host configuration information. Master servers hold the authoritative copy of this information, while slave servers mirror this information for redundancy. Clients rely on the servers to provide this information to them.

Information in many files can be shared in this manner. The master.passwd, group, and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS. Whenever a process on a client needs information that would normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the NIS server that it is bound to instead.

19.9.3.1. Machine Types

  • A NIS master server. This server, analogous to a Windows NT primary domain controller, maintains the files used by all of the NIS clients. The passwd, group, and other various files used by the NIS clients live on the master server.

    Note: It is possible for one machine to be an NIS master server for more than one NIS domain. However, this will not be covered in this introduction, which assumes a relatively small-scale NIS environment.

  • NIS slave servers. Similar to the Windows NT backup domain controllers, NIS slave servers maintain copies of the NIS master's data files. NIS slave servers provide the redundancy, which is needed in important environments. They also help to balance the load of the master server: NIS Clients always attach to the NIS server whose response they get first, and this includes slave-server-replies.

  • NIS clients. NIS clients, like most Windows NT workstations, authenticate against the NIS server (or the Windows NT domain controller in the Windows NT Workstation case) to log on.

19.9.4. Using NIS/YP

This section will deal with setting up a sample NIS environment.

Note: This section assumes that you are running FreeBSD 3.3 or later. The instructions given here will probably work for any version of FreeBSD greater than 3.0, but there are no guarantees that this is true.

19.9.4.1. Planning

Let us assume that you are the administrator of a small university lab. This lab, which consists of 15 FreeBSD machines, currently has no centralized point of administration; each machine has its own /etc/passwd and /etc/master.passwd. These files are kept in sync with each other only through manual intervention; currently, when you add a user to the lab, you must run adduser on all 15 machines. Clearly, this has to change, so you have decided to convert the lab to use NIS, using two of the machines as servers.

Therefore, the configuration of the lab now looks something like:

Machine name IP address Machine role
ellington 10.0.0.2 NIS master
coltrane 10.0.0.3 NIS slave
basie 10.0.0.4 Faculty workstation
bird 10.0.0.5 Client machine
cli[1-11] 10.0.0.[6-17] Other client machines

If you are setting up a NIS scheme for the first time, it is a good idea to think through how you want to go about it. No matter what the size of your network, there are a few decisions that need to be made.

19.9.4.1.1. Choosing a NIS Domain Name

This might not be the ``domainname'' that you are used to. It is more accurately called the ``NIS domainname''. When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts that are related in some way.

Some organizations choose to use their Internet domainname for their NIS domainname. This is not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The NIS domainname should be unique within your network and it is helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents. For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the ``acme-art'' NIS domain. For this example, assume you have chosen the name test-domain.

However, some operating systems (notably SunOS) use their NIS domain name as their Internet domain name. If one or more machines on your network have this restriction, you must use the Internet domain name as your NIS domain name.

19.9.4.1.2. Physical Server Requirements

There are several things to keep in mind when choosing a machine to use as a NIS server. One of the unfortunate things about NIS is the level of dependency the clients have on the server. If a client cannot contact the server for its NIS domain, very often the machine becomes unusable. The lack of user and group information causes most systems to temporarily freeze up. With this in mind you should make sure to choose a machine that will not be prone to being rebooted regularly, or one that might be used for development. The NIS server should ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose in life is to be an NIS server. If you have a network that is not very heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a machine running other services, just keep in mind that if the NIS server becomes unavailable, it will affect all of your NIS clients adversely.

19.9.4.2. NIS Servers

The canonical copies of all NIS information are stored on a single machine called the NIS master server. The databases used to store the information are called NIS maps. In FreeBSD, these maps are stored in /var/yp/[domainname] where [domainname] is the name of the NIS domain being served. A single NIS server can support several domains at once, therefore it is possible to have several such directories, one for each supported domain. Each domain will have its own independent set of maps.

NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests with the ypserv daemon. ypserv is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients, translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database file and transmitting data from the database back to the client.

19.9.4.2.1. Setting Up a NIS Master Server

Setting up a master NIS server can be relatively straight forward, depending on your needs. FreeBSD comes with support for NIS out-of-the-box. All you need is to add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf, and FreeBSD will do the rest for you.

  1. nisdomainname="test-domain"
    This line will set the NIS domainname to test-domain upon network setup (e.g. after reboot).

  2. nis_server_enable="YES"
    This will tell FreeBSD to start up the NIS server processes when the networking is next brought up.

  3. nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES"
    This will enable the rpc.yppasswdd daemon which, as mentioned above, will allow users to change their NIS password from a client machine.

Note: Depending on your NIS setup, you may need to add further entries. See the section about NIS servers that are also NIS clients, below, for details.

Now, all you have to do is to run the command /etc/netstart as superuser. It will set up everything for you, using the values you defined in /etc/rc.conf.

19.9.4.2.2. Initializing the NIS Maps

The NIS maps are database files, that are kept in the /var/yp directory. They are generated from configuration files in the /etc directory of the NIS master, with one exception: the /etc/master.passwd file. This is for a good reason; you do not want to propagate passwords to your root and other administrative accounts to all the servers in the NIS domain. Therefore, before we initialize the NIS maps, you should:

# cp /etc/master.passwd /var/yp/master.passwd
# cd /var/yp
# vi master.passwd

You should remove all entries regarding system accounts (bin, tty, kmem, games, etc), as well as any accounts that you do not want to be propagated to the NIS clients (for example root and any other UID 0 (superuser) accounts).

Note: Make sure the /var/yp/master.passwd is neither group nor world readable (mode 600)! Use the chmod command, if appropriate.

When you have finished, it is time to initialize the NIS maps! FreeBSD includes a script named ypinit to do this for you (see its manual page for more information). Note that this script is available on most UNIX Operating Systems, but not on all. On Digital UNIX/Compaq Tru64 UNIX it is called ypsetup. Because we are generating maps for an NIS master, we are going to pass the -m option to ypinit. To generate the NIS maps, assuming you already performed the steps above, run:

ellington# ypinit -m test-domain
Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain
Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions.
Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure.
Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n
Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails.
If you don't, something might not work.
At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers.
rod.darktech.org is already known as master server.
Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are
done with the list, type a <control D>.
master server   :  ellington
next host to add:  coltrane
next host to add:  ^D
The current list of NIS servers looks like this:
ellington
coltrane
Is this correct?  [y/n: y] y

[..output from map generation..]

NIS Map update completed.
ellington has been setup as an YP master server without any errors.

ypinit should have created /var/yp/Makefile from /var/yp/Makefile.dist. When created, this file assumes that you are operating in a single server NIS environment with only FreeBSD machines. Since test-domain has a slave server as well, you must edit /var/yp/Makefile:

ellington# vi /var/yp/Makefile

You should comment out the line that says

NOPUSH = "True"

(if it is not commented out already).

19.9.4.2.3. Setting up a NIS Slave Server

Setting up an NIS slave server is even more simple than setting up the master. Log on to the slave server and edit the file /etc/rc.conf as you did before. The only difference is that we now must use the -s option when running ypinit. The -s option requires the name of the NIS master be passed to it as well, so our command line looks like:

coltrane# ypinit -s ellington test-domain

Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: ellington

Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions.
Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure.

Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n]  n

Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails.
If you don't, something might not work.
There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure
should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from ellington.
Transferring netgroup...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring netgroup.byuser...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring netgroup.byhost...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring master.passwd.byuid...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring passwd.byuid...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring passwd.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring group.bygid...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring group.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring services.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring rpc.bynumber...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring rpc.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring protocols.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring master.passwd.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring networks.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring networks.byaddr...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring netid.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring hosts.byaddr...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring protocols.bynumber...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring ypservers...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring hosts.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred

coltrane has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors.
Don't forget to update map ypservers on ellington.

You should now have a directory called /var/yp/test-domain. Copies of the NIS master server's maps should be in this directory. You will need to make sure that these stay updated. The following /etc/crontab entries on your slave servers should do the job:

20      *       *       *       *       root   /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname
21      *       *       *       *       root   /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid

These two lines force the slave to sync its maps with the maps on the master server. Although these entries are not mandatory, since the master server attempts to ensure any changes to its NIS maps are communicated to its slaves and because password information is vital to systems depending on the server, it is a good idea to force the updates. This is more important on busy networks where map updates might not always complete.

Now, run the command /etc/netstart on the slave server as well, which again starts the NIS server.

19.9.4.3. NIS Clients

An NIS client establishes what is called a binding to a particular NIS server using the ypbind daemon. ypbind checks the system's default domain (as set by the domainname command), and begins broadcasting RPC requests on the local network. These requests specify the name of the domain for which ypbind is attempting to establish a binding. If a server that has been configured to serve the requested domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to ypbind, which will record the server's address. If there are several servers available (a master and several slaves, for example), ypbind will use the address of the first one to respond. From that point on, the client system will direct all of its NIS requests to that server. ypbind will occasionally ``ping'' the server to make sure it is still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of its pings within a reasonable amount of time, ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another server.

19.9.4.3.1. Setting Up a NIS Client

Setting up a FreeBSD machine to be a NIS client is fairly straightforward.

  1. Edit the file /etc/rc.conf and add the following lines in order to set the NIS domainname and start ypbind upon network startup:

    nisdomainname="test-domain"
nis_client_enable="YES"

  2. To import all possible password entries from the NIS server, remove all user accounts from your /etc/master.passwd file and use vipw to add the following line to the end of the file:

    +:::::::::

    Note: This line will afford anyone with a valid account in the NIS server's password maps an account. There are many ways to configure your NIS client by changing this line. See the netgroups section below for more information. For more detailed reading see O'Reilly's book on Managing NFS and NIS.

    Note: You should keep at least one local account (i.e. not imported via NIS) in your /etc/master.passwd and this account should also be a member of the group wheel. If there is something wrong with NIS, this account can be used to log in remotely, become root, and fix things.

  3. To import all possible group entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/group file:

    +:*::

After completing these steps, you should be able to run ypcat passwd and see the NIS server's passwd map.

19.9.5. NIS Security

In general, any remote user can issue an RPC to ypserv(8) and retrieve the contents of your NIS maps, provided the remote user knows your domainname. To prevent such unauthorized transactions, ypserv(8) supports a feature called securenets which can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, ypserv(8) will attempt to load the securenets information from a file called /var/yp/securenets.

Note: This path varies depending on the path specified with the -p option. This file contains entries that consist of a network specification and a network mask separated by white space. Lines starting with ``#'' are considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look like this:

# allow connections from local host -- mandatory
127.0.0.1     255.255.255.255
# allow connections from any host
# on the 192.168.128.0 network
192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0
# allow connections from any host
# between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255
# this includes the machines in the testlab
10.0.0.0      255.255.240.0

If ypserv(8) receives a request from an address that matches one of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a warning message will be logged. If the /var/yp/securenets file does not exist, ypserv will allow connections from any host.

The ypserv program also has support for Wietse Venema's tcpwrapper package. This allows the administrator to use the tcpwrapper configuration files for access control instead of /var/yp/securenets.

Note: While both of these access control mechanisms provide some security, they, like the privileged port test, are vulnerable to ``IP spoofing'' attacks. All NIS-related traffic should be blocked at your firewall.

Servers using /var/yp/securenets may fail to serve legitimate NIS clients with archaic TCP/IP implementations. Some of these implementations set all host bits to zero when doing broadcasts and/or fail to observe the subnet mask when calculating the broadcast address. While some of these problems can be fixed by changing the client configuration, other problems may force the retirement of the client systems in question or the abandonment of /var/yp/securenets.

Using /var/yp/securenets on a server with such an archaic implementation of TCP/IP is a really bad idea and will lead to loss of NIS functionality for large parts of your network.

The use of the tcpwrapper package increases the latency of your NIS server. The additional delay may be long enough to cause timeouts in client programs, especially in busy networks or with slow NIS servers. If one or more of your client systems suffers from these symptoms, you should convert the client systems in question into NIS slave servers and force them to bind to themselves.

19.9.6. Barring Some Users from Logging On

In our lab, there is a machine basie that is supposed to be a faculty only workstation. We do not want to take this machine out of the NIS domain, yet the passwd file on the master NIS server contains accounts for both faculty and students. What can we do?

There is a way to bar specific users from logging on to a machine, even if they are present in the NIS database. To do this, all you must do is add -username to the end of the /etc/master.passwd file on the client machine, where username is the username of the user you wish to bar from logging in. This should preferably be done using vipw, since vipw will sanity check your changes to /etc/master.passwd, as well as automatically rebuild the password database when you finish editing. For example, if we wanted to bar user bill from logging on to basie we would:

basie# vipw
[add -bill to the end, exit]
vipw: rebuilding the database...
vipw: done

basie# cat /etc/master.passwd

root:[password]:0:0::0:0:The super-user:/root:/bin/csh
toor:[password]:0:0::0:0:The other super-user:/root:/bin/sh
daemon:*:1:1::0:0:Owner of many system processes:/root:/sbin/nologin
operator:*:2:5::0:0:System &:/:/sbin/nologin
bin:*:3:7::0:0:Binaries Commands and Source,,,:/:/sbin/nologin
tty:*:4:65533::0:0:Tty Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
kmem:*:5:65533::0:0:KMem Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
games:*:7:13::0:0:Games pseudo-user:/usr/games:/sbin/nologin
news:*:8:8::0:0:News Subsystem:/:/sbin/nologin
man:*:9:9::0:0:Mister Man Pages:/usr/share/man:/sbin/nologin
bind:*:53:53::0:0:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
uucp:*:66:66::0:0:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico
xten:*:67:67::0:0:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/sbin/nologin
pop:*:68:6::0:0:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
nobody:*:65534:65534::0:0:Unprivileged user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
+:::::::::
-bill

basie#

19.9.7. Using Netgroups

Contributed by Udo Erdelhoff.

The method shown in the previous section works reasonably well if you need special rules for a very small number of users and/or machines. On larger networks, you will forget to bar some users from logging onto sensitive machines, or you may even have to modify each machine separately, thus losing the main benefit of NIS, centralized administration.

The NIS developers' solution for this problem is called netgroups. Their purpose and semantics can be compared to the normal groups used by UNIX file systems. The main differences are the lack of a numeric id and the ability to define a netgroup by including both user accounts and other netgroups.

Netgroups were developed to handle large, complex networks with hundreds of users and machines. On one hand, this is a Good Thing if you are forced to deal with such a situation. On the other hand, this complexity makes it almost impossible to explain netgroups with really simple examples. The example used in the remainder of this section demonstrates this problem.

Let us assume that your successful introduction of NIS in your laboratory caught your superiors' interest. Your next job is to extend your NIS domain to cover some of the other machines on campus. The two tables contain the names of the new users and new machines as well as brief descriptions of them.

User Name(s) Description
alpha, beta Normal employees of the IT department
charlie, delta The new apprentices of the IT department
echo, foxtrott, golf, ... Ordinary employees
able, baker, ... The current interns
Machine Name(s) Description
war, death, famine, pollution Your most important servers. Only the IT employees are allowed to log onto these machines.
pride, greed, envy, wrath, lust, sloth Less important servers. All members of the IT department are allowed to login onto these machines.
one, two, three, four, ... Ordinary workstations. Only the real employees are allowed to use these machines.
trashcan A very old machine without any critical data. Even the intern is allowed to use this box.

If you tried to implement these restrictions by separately blocking each user, you would have to add one -user line to each system's passwd for each user who is not allowed to login onto that system. If you forget just one entry, you could be in trouble. It may be feasible to do this correctly during the initial setup, however you will eventually forget to add the lines for new users during day-to-day operations. After all, Murphy was an optimist.

Handling this situation with netgroups offers several advantages. Each user need not be handled separately; you assign a user to one or more netgroups and allow or forbid logins for all members of the netgroup. If you add a new machine, you will only have to define login restrictions for netgroups. If a new user is added, you will only have to add the user to one or more netgroups. Those changes are independent of each other; no more ``for each combination of user and machine do...'' If your NIS setup is planned carefully, you will only have to modify exactly one central configuration file to grant or deny access to machines.

The first step is the initialization of the NIS map netgroup. FreeBSD's ypinit(8) does not create this map by default, but its NIS implementation will support it once it has been created. To create an empty map, simply type

ellington# vi /var/yp/netgroup

and start adding content. For our example, we need at least four netgroups: IT employees, IT apprentices, normal employees and interns.

IT_EMP  (,alpha,test-domain)    (,beta,test-domain)
IT_APP  (,charlie,test-domain)  (,delta,test-domain)
USERS   (,echo,test-domain)     (,foxtrott,test-domain) \
        (,golf,test-domain)
INTERNS (,able,test-domain)     (,baker,test-domain)

IT_EMP, IT_APP etc. are the names of the netgroups. Each bracketed group adds one or more user accounts to it. The three fields inside a group are:

  1. The name of the host(s) where the following items are valid. If you do not specify a hostname, the entry is valid on all hosts. If you do specify a hostname, you will enter a realm of darkness, horror and utter confusion.

  2. The name of the account that belongs to this netgroup.

  3. The NIS domain for the account. You can import accounts from other NIS domains into your netgroup if you are one of the unlucky fellows with more than one NIS domain.

Each of these fields can contain wildcards. See netgroup(5) for details.

Note: Netgroup names longer than 8 characters should not be used, especially if you have machines running other operating systems within your NIS domain. The names are case sensitive; using capital letters for your netgroup names is an easy way to distinguish between user, machine and netgroup names.

Some NIS clients (other than FreeBSD) cannot handle netgroups with a large number of entries. For example, some older versions of SunOS start to cause trouble if a netgroup contains more than 15 entries. You can circumvent this limit by creating several sub-netgroups with 15 users or less and a real netgroup that consists of the sub-netgroups:

BIGGRP1  (,joe1,domain)  (,joe2,domain)  (,joe3,domain) [...]
BIGGRP2  (,joe16,domain)  (,joe17,domain) [...]
BIGGRP3  (,joe31,domain)  (,joe32,domain)
BIGGROUP  BIGGRP1 BIGGRP2 BIGGRP3

You can repeat this process if you need more than 225 users within a single netgroup.

Activating and distributing your new NIS map is easy:

ellington# cd /var/yp
ellington# make

This will generate the three NIS maps netgroup, netgroup.byhost and netgroup.byuser. Use ypcat(1) to check if your new NIS maps are available:

ellington% ypcat -k netgroup
ellington% ypcat -k netgroup.byhost
ellington% ypcat -k netgroup.byuser

The output of the first command should resemble the contents of /var/yp/netgroup. The second command will not produce output if you have not specified host-specific netgroups. The third command can be used to get the list of netgroups for a user.

The client setup is quite simple. To configure the server war, you only have to start vipw(8) and replace the line

+:::::::::

with

+@IT_EMP:::::::::

Now, only the data for the users defined in the netgroup IT_EMP is imported into war's password database and only these users are allowed to login.

Unfortunately, this limitation also applies to the ~ function of the shell and all routines converting between user names and numerical user IDs. In other words, cd ~user will not work, ls -l will show the numerical id instead of the username and find . -user joe -print will fail with ``No such user''. To fix this, you will have to import all user entries without allowing them to login onto your servers.

This can be achieved by adding another line to /etc/master.passwd. This line should contain:

+:::::::::/sbin/nologin, meaning ``Import all entries but replace the shell with /sbin/nologin in the imported entries''. You can replace any field in the passwd entry by placing a default value in your /etc/master.passwd.

WarningMake sure that the line +:::::::::/sbin/nologin is placed after +@IT_EMP:::::::::. Otherwise, all user accounts imported from NIS will have /sbin/nologin as their login shell.

After this change, you will only have to change one NIS map if a new employee joins the IT department. You could use a similar approach for the less important servers by replacing the old +::::::::: in their local version of /etc/master.passwd with something like this:

+@IT_EMP:::::::::
+@IT_APP:::::::::
+:::::::::/sbin/nologin

The corresponding lines for the normal workstations could be:

+@IT_EMP:::::::::
+@USERS:::::::::
+:::::::::/sbin/nologin

And everything would be fine until there is a policy change a few weeks later: The IT department starts hiring interns. The IT interns are allowed to use the normal workstations and the less important servers; and the IT apprentices are allowed to login onto the main servers. You add a new netgroup IT_INTERN, add the new IT interns to this netgroup and start to change the config on each and every machine... As the old saying goes: ``Errors in centralized planning lead to global mess''.

NIS' ability to create netgroups from other netgroups can be used to prevent situations like these. One possibility is the creation of role-based netgroups. For example, you could create a netgroup called BIGSRV to define the login restrictions for the important servers, another netgroup called SMALLSRV for the less important servers and a third netgroup called USERBOX for the normal workstations. Each of these netgroups contains the netgroups that are allowed to login onto these machines. The new entries for your NIS map netgroup should look like this:

BIGSRV    IT_EMP  IT_APP
SMALLSRV  IT_EMP  IT_APP  ITINTERN
USERBOX   IT_EMP  ITINTERN USERS

This method of defining login restrictions works reasonably well if you can define groups of machines with identical restrictions. Unfortunately, this is the exception and not the rule. Most of the time, you will need the ability to define login restrictions on a per-machine basis.

Machine-specific netgroup definitions are the other possibility to deal with the policy change outlined above. In this scenario, the /etc/master.passwd of each box contains two lines starting with ``+''. The first of them adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to login onto this machine, the second one adds all other accounts with /sbin/nologin as shell. It is a good idea to use the ALL-CAPS version of the machine name as the name of the netgroup. In other words, the lines should look like this:

+@BOXNAME:::::::::
+:::::::::/sbin/nologin

Once you have completed this task for all your machines, you will not have to modify the local versions of /etc/master.passwd ever again. All further changes can be handled by modifying the NIS map. Here is an example of a possible netgroup map for this scenario with some additional goodies.

# Define groups of users first
IT_EMP    (,alpha,test-domain)    (,beta,test-domain)
IT_APP    (,charlie,test-domain)  (,delta,test-domain)
DEPT1     (,echo,test-domain)     (,foxtrott,test-domain)
DEPT2     (,golf,test-domain)     (,hotel,test-domain)
DEPT3     (,india,test-domain)    (,juliet,test-domain)
ITINTERN  (,kilo,test-domain)     (,lima,test-domain)
D_INTERNS (,able,test-domain)     (,baker,test-domain)
#
# Now, define some groups based on roles
USERS     DEPT1   DEPT2     DEPT3
BIGSRV    IT_EMP  IT_APP
SMALLSRV  IT_EMP  IT_APP    ITINTERN
USERBOX   IT_EMP  ITINTERN  USERS
#
# And a groups for a special tasks
# Allow echo and golf to access our anti-virus-machine
SECURITY  IT_EMP  (,echo,test-domain)  (,golf,test-domain)
#
# machine-based netgroups
# Our main servers
WAR       BIGSRV
FAMINE    BIGSRV
# User india needs access to this server
POLLUTION  BIGSRV  (,india,test-domain)
#
# This one is really important and needs more access restrictions
DEATH     IT_EMP
#
# The anti-virus-machine mentioned above
ONE       SECURITY
#
# Restrict a machine to a single user
TWO       (,hotel,test-domain)
# [...more groups to follow]

If you are using some kind of database to manage your user accounts, you should be able to create the first part of the map with your database's report tools. This way, new users will automatically have access to the boxes.

One last word of caution: It may not always be advisable to use machine-based netgroups. If you are deploying a couple of dozen or even hundreds of identical machines for student labs, you should use role-based netgroups instead of machine-based netgroups to keep the size of the NIS map within reasonable limits.

19.9.8. Important Things to Remember

There are still a couple of things that you will need to do differently now that you are in an NIS environment.

  • Every time you wish to add a user to the lab, you must add it to the master NIS server only, and you must remember to rebuild the NIS maps. If you forget to do this, the new user will not be able to login anywhere except on the NIS master. For example, if we needed to add a new user ``jsmith'' to the lab, we would:

    # pw useradd jsmith
# cd /var/yp
# make test-domain

    You could also run adduser jsmith instead of pw useradd jsmith.

  • Keep the administration accounts out of the NIS maps. You do not want to be propagating administrative accounts and passwords to machines that will have users that should not have access to those accounts.

  • Keep the NIS master and slave secure, and minimize their downtime. If somebody either hacks or simply turns off these machines, they have effectively rendered many people without the ability to login to the lab.

    This is the chief weakness of any centralized administration system. If you do not protect your NIS servers, you will have a lot of angry users!

19.9.9. NIS v1 Compatibility

FreeBSD's ypserv has some support for serving NIS v1 clients. FreeBSD's NIS implementation only uses the NIS v2 protocol, however other implementations include support for the v1 protocol for backwards compatibility with older systems. The ypbind daemons supplied with these systems will try to establish a binding to an NIS v1 server even though they may never actually need it (and they may persist in broadcasting in search of one even after they receive a response from a v2 server). Note that while support for normal client calls is provided, this version of ypserv does not handle v1 map transfer requests; consequently, it cannot be used as a master or slave in conjunction with older NIS servers that only support the v1 protocol. Fortunately, there probably are not any such servers still in use today.

19.9.10. NIS Servers That Are Also NIS Clients

Care must be taken when running ypserv in a multi-server domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if one server goes down and others are dependent upon it. Eventually all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each other all over again.

You can force a host to bind to a particular server by running ypbind with the -S flag. If you do not want to do this manually each time you reboot your NIS server, you can add the following lines to your /etc/rc.conf:

nis_client_enable="YES"    # run client stuff as well
nis_client_flags="-S NIS domain,server"

See ypbind(8) for further information.

19.9.11. Password Formats

One of the most common issues that people run into when trying to implement NIS is password format compatibility. If your NIS server is using DES encrypted passwords, it will only support clients that are also using DES. For example, if you have Solaris NIS clients in your network, then you will almost certainly need to use DES encrypted passwords.

To check which format your servers and clients are using, look at /etc/login.conf. If the host is configured to use DES encrypted passwords, then the default class will contain an entry like this:

default:\
    :passwd_format=des:\
    :copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\
    [Further entries elided]

Other possible values for the passwd_format capability include blf and md5 (for Blowfish and MD5 encrypted passwords, respectively).

If you have made changes to /etc/login.conf, you will also need to rebuild the login capability database, which is achieved by running the following command as root:

# cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf

Note: The format of passwords already in /etc/master.passwd will not be updated until a user changes their password for the first time after the login capability database is rebuilt.

Next, in order to ensure that passwords are encrypted with the format that you have chosen, you should also check that the crypt_default in /etc/auth.conf gives precedence to your chosen password format. To do this, place the format that you have chosen first in the list. For example, when using DES encrypted passwords, the entry would be:

crypt_default  =   des blf md5

Having followed the above steps on each of the FreeBSD based NIS servers and clients, you can be sure that they all agree on which password format is used within your network. If you have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, this is a pretty good place to start looking for possible problems. Remember: if you want to deploy an NIS server for a heterogenous network, you will probably have to use DES on all systems because it is the lowest common standard.

19.10. DHCP

Written by Greg Sutter.

19.10.1. What Is DHCP?

DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes the means by which a system can connect to a network and obtain the necessary information for communication upon that network. FreeBSD uses the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) DHCP implementation, so all implementation-specific information here is for use with the ISC distribution.

19.10.2. What This Section Covers

This section describes both the client-side and server-side components of the ISC DHCP system. The client-side program, dhclient, comes integrated within FreeBSD, and the server-side portion is available from the net/isc-dhcp3 port. The dhclient(8), dhcp-options(5), and dhclient.conf(5) manual pages, in addition to the references below, are useful resources.

19.10.3. How It Works

When dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The server replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such as netmask, router, and DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP ``lease'' and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically reclaimed.

DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be found in dhcp-options(5).

19.10.4. FreeBSD Integration

FreeBSD fully integrates the ISC DHCP client, dhclient. DHCP client support is provided within both the installer and the base system, obviating the need for detailed knowledge of network configurations on any network that runs a DHCP server. dhclient has been included in all FreeBSD distributions since 3.2.

DHCP is supported by sysinstall. When configuring a network interface within sysinstall, the first question asked is, ``Do you want to try DHCP configuration of this interface?'' Answering affirmatively will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically.

There are two things you must do to have your system use DHCP upon startup:

  • Make sure that the bpf device is compiled into your kernel. To do this, add pseudo-device bpf to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild the kernel. For more information about building kernels, see Chapter 9.

    The bpf device is already part of the GENERIC kernel that is supplied with FreeBSD, so if you do not have a custom kernel, you should not need to create one in order to get DHCP working.

    Note: For those who are particularly security conscious, you should be warned that bpf is also the device that allows packet sniffers to work correctly (although they still have to be run as root). bpf is required to use DHCP, but if you are very sensitive about security, you probably should not add bpf to your kernel in the expectation that at some point in the future you will be using DHCP.

  • Edit your /etc/rc.conf to include the following:

    ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP"

    Note: Be sure to replace fxp0 with the designation for the interface that you wish to dynamically configure, as described in Section 6.8.

    If you are using a different location for dhclient, or if you wish to pass additional flags to dhclient, also include the following (editing as necessary):

    dhcp_program="/sbin/dhclient"
dhcp_flags=""

The DHCP server, dhcpd, is included as part of the net/isc-dhcp3 port in the ports collection. This port contains the full ISC DHCP distribution, consisting of client, server, relay agent and documentation.

19.10.5. Files

  • /etc/dhclient.conf

    dhclient requires a configuration file, /etc/dhclient.conf. Typically the file contains only comments, the defaults being reasonably sane. This configuration file is described by the dhclient.conf(5) manual page.

  • /sbin/dhclient

    dhclient is statically linked and resides in /sbin. The dhclient(8) manual page gives more information about dhclient.

  • /sbin/dhclient-script

    dhclient-script is the FreeBSD-specific DHCP client configuration script. It is described in dhclient-script(8), but should not need any user modification to function properly.

  • /var/db/dhclient.leases

    The DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this file, which is written as a log. dhclient.leases(5) gives a slightly longer description.

19.10.6. Further Reading

The DHCP protocol is fully described in RFC 2131. An informational resource has also been set up at dhcp.org.

19.10.7. Installing and Configuring a DHCP Server

19.10.7.1. What This Section Covers

This section provides information on how to configure a FreeBSD system to act as a DHCP server using the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) implementation of the DHCP suite.

The server portion of the suite is not provided as part of FreeBSD, and so you will need to install the net/isc-dhcp3 port to provide this service. See Chapter 4 for more information on using the ports collection.

19.10.7.2. DHCP Server Installation

In order to configure your FreeBSD system as a DHCP server, you will need to ensure that the bpf(4) device is compiled into your kernel. To do this, add pseudo-device bpf to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild the kernel. For more information about building kernels, see Chapter 9.

The bpf device is already part of the GENERIC kernel that is supplied with FreeBSD, so you do not need to create a custom kernel in order to get DHCP working.

Note: Those who are particularly security conscious should note that bpf is also the device that allows packet sniffers to work correctly (although such programs still need privileged access). bpf is required to use DHCP, but if you are very sensitive about security, you probably should not include bpf in your kernel purely because you expect to use DHCP at some point in the future.

The next thing that you will need to do is edit the sample dhcpd.conf which was installed by the net/isc-dhcp3 port. By default, this will be /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf.sample, and you should copy this to /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf before proceeding to make changes.

19.10.7.3. Configuring the DHCP Server

dhcpd.conf is comprised of declarations regarding subnets and hosts, and is perhaps most easily explained using an example :

option domain-name "example.com";(1)
option domain-name-servers 192.168.4.100;(2)
option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0;(3)

default-lease-time 3600;(4)
max-lease-time 86400;(5)
ddns-update-style none;(6)

subnet 192.168.4.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
  range 192.168.4.129 192.168.4.254;(7)
  option routers 192.168.4.1;(8)
}

host mailhost {
  hardware ethernet 02:03:04:05:06:07;(9)
  fixed-address mailhost.example.com;(10)
}
(1)
This option specifies the domain that will be provided to clients as the default search domain. See resolv.conf(5) for more information on what this means.
(2)
This option specifies a comma separated list of DNS servers that the client should use.
(3)
The netmask that will be provided to clients.
(4)
A client may request a specific length of time that a lease will be valid. Otherwise the server will assign a lease with this expiry value (in seconds).
(5)
This is the maximum length of time that the server will lease for. Should a client request a longer lease, a lease will be issued, although it will only be valid for max-lease-time seconds.
(6)
This option specifies whether the DHCP server should attempt to update DNS when a lease is accepted or released. In the ISC implementation, this option is required.
(7)
This denotes which IP addresses should be used in the pool reserved for allocating to clients. IP addresses between, and including, the ones stated are handed out to clients.
(8)
Declares the default gateway that will be provided to clients.
(9)
The hardware MAC address of a host (so that the DHCP server can recognize a host when it makes a request).
(10)
Specifies that the host should always be given the same IP address. Note that a hostname is OK here, since the DHCP server will resolve the hostname itself before returning the lease information.

Once you have finished writing your dhcpd.conf, you can proceed to start the server by issuing the following command:

# /usr/local/etc/rc.d/isc-dhcpd.sh start

Should you need to make changes to the configuration of your server in the future, it is important to note that sending a SIGHUP signal to dhcpd does not result in the configuration being reloaded, as it does with most daemons. You will need to send a SIGTERM signal to stop the process, and then restart it using the command above.

19.10.7.4. Files

  • /usr/local/sbin/dhcpd

    dhcpd is statically linked and resides in /usr/local/sbin. The dhcpd(8) manual page installed with the port gives more information about dhcpd.

  • /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf

    dhcpd requires a configuration file, /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf before it will start providing service to clients. This file needs to contain all the information that should be provided to clients that are being serviced, along with information regarding the operation of the server. This configuration file is described by the dhcpd.conf(5) manual page installed by the port.

  • /var/db/dhcpd.leases

    The DHCP server keeps a database of leases it has issued in this file, which is written as a log. The manual page dhcpd.leases(5), installed by the port gives a slightly longer description.

  • /usr/local/sbin/dhcrelay

    dhcrelay is used in advanced environments where one DHCP server forwards a request from a client to another DHCP server on a separate network. The dhcrelay(8) manual page provided with the port contains more detail.

19.11. DNS

Contributed by Chern Lee.

19.11.1. Overview

FreeBSD utilizes, by default, a version of BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain), which is the most common implementation of the DNS protocol. DNS is the protocol through which names are mapped to IP addresses, and vice versa. For example, a query for www.FreeBSD.org will receive a reply with the IP address of The FreeBSD Project's web server, whereas, a query for ftp.FreeBSD.org will return the IP address of the corresponding FTP machine. Likewise, the opposite can happen. A query for an IP address can resolve its hostname. It is not necessary to run a name server to perform DNS lookups on a system.

DNS is coordinated across the Internet through a somewhat complex system of authoritative root name servers, and other smaller-scale name servers who host and cache individual domain information.

This document refers to BIND 8.x, as it is the stable version used in FreeBSD. BIND 9.x in FreeBSD can be installed through the net/bind9 port.

RFC1034 and RFC1035 dictate the DNS protocol.

Currently, BIND is maintained by the Internet Software Consortium (www.isc.org).

19.11.2. Terminology

To understand this document, some terms related to DNS must be understood.

Term Definition
Forward DNS Mapping of hostnames to IP addresses
Origin Refers to the domain covered in a particular zone file
named, BIND, name server Common names for the BIND name server package within FreeBSD
Resolver A system process through which a machine queries a name server for zone information
Reverse DNS The opposite of forward DNS; mapping of IP addresses to hostnames
Root zone The beginning of the Internet zone hierarchy. All zones fall under the root zone, similar to how all files in a file system fall under the root directory.
Zone An individual domain, subdomain, or portion of the DNS administered by the same authority

Examples of zones:

  • . is the root zone

  • org. is a zone under the root zone

  • example.org is a zone under the org. zone

  • foo.example.org. is a subdomain, a zone under the example.org. zone

  • 1.2.3.in-addr.arpa is a zone referencing all IP addresses which fall under the 3.2.1.* IP space.

As one can see, the more specific part of a hostname appears to its left. For example, example.org. is more specific than org., as org. is more specific than the root zone. The layout of each part of a hostname is much like a filesystem: the /dev directory falls within the root, and so on.

19.11.3. Reasons to Run a Name Server

Name servers usually come in two forms: an authoritative name server, and a caching name server.

An authoritative name server is needed when:

  • one wants to serve DNS information to the world, replying authoritatively to queries.

  • a domain, such as example.org, is registered and IP addresses need to be assigned to hostnames under it.

  • an IP address block requires reverse DNS entries (IP to hostname).

  • a backup name server, called a slave, must reply to queries when the primary is down or inaccessible.

A caching name server is needed when:

  • a local DNS server may cache and respond more quickly than querying an outside name server.

  • a reduction in overall network traffic is desired (DNS traffic has been measured to account for 5% or more of total Internet traffic).

When one queries for www.FreeBSD.org, the resolver usually queries the uplink ISP's name server, and retrieves the reply. With a local, caching DNS server, the query only has to be made once to the outside world by the caching DNS server. Every additional query will not have to look to the outside of the local network, since the information is cached locally.

19.11.4. How It Works

In FreeBSD, the BIND daemon is called named for obvious reasons.

File Description
named the BIND daemon
ndc name daemon control program
/etc/namedb directory where BIND zone information resides
/etc/namedb/named.conf daemon configuration file

Zone files are usually contained within the /etc/namedb directory, and contain the DNS zone information served by the name server.

19.11.5. Starting BIND

Since BIND is installed by default, configuring it all is relatively simple.

To ensure the named daemon is started at boot, put the following modifications in /etc/rc.conf:

named_enable="YES"

To start the daemon manually (after configuring it)

# ndc start

19.11.6. Configuration Files

19.11.6.1. Using make-localhost

Be sure to:

# cd /etc/namedb
# sh make-localhost

to properly create the local reverse DNS zone file in /etc/namedb/localhost.rev.

19.11.6.2. /etc/namedb/named.conf

// $FreeBSD$
//
// Refer to the named(8) manual page for details.  If you are ever going
// to setup a primary server, make sure you've understood the hairy
// details of how DNS is working.  Even with simple mistakes, you can
// break connectivity for affected parties, or cause huge amount of
// useless Internet traffic.

options {
        directory "/etc/namedb";

// In addition to the "forwarders" clause, you can force your name
// server to never initiate queries of its own, but always ask its
// forwarders only, by enabling the following line:
//
//      forward only;

// If you've got a DNS server around at your upstream provider, enter
// its IP address here, and enable the line below.  This will make you
// benefit from its cache, thus reduce overall DNS traffic in the
Internet.
/*
        forwarders {
                127.0.0.1;
        };
*/

Just as the comment says, to benefit from an uplink's cache, forwarders can be enabled here. Under normal circumstances, a name server will recursively query the Internet looking at certain name servers until it finds the answer it is looking for. Having this enabled will have it query the uplink's name server (or name server provided) first, taking advantage of its cache. If the uplink name server in question is a heavily trafficked, fast name server, enabling this may be worthwhile.

Warning127.0.0.1 will not work here. Change this IP address to a name server at your uplink.

        /*
         * If there is a firewall between you and name servers you want
         * to talk to, you might need to uncomment the query-source
         * directive below.  Previous versions of BIND always asked
         * questions using port 53, but BIND 8.1 uses an unprivileged
         * port by default.
         */
        // query-source address * port 53;

        /*
         * If running in a sandbox, you may have to specify a different
         * location for the dumpfile.
         */
        // dump-file "s/named_dump.db";
};

// Note: the following will be supported in a future release.
/*
host { any; } {
        topology {
                127.0.0.0/8;
        };
};
*/

// Setting up secondaries is way easier and the rough picture for this
// is explained below.
//
// If you enable a local name server, don't forget to enter 127.0.0.1
// into your /etc/resolv.conf so this server will be queried first.
// Also, make sure to enable it in /etc/rc.conf.

zone "." {
        type hint;
        file "named.root";
};

zone "0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA" {
        type master;
        file "localhost.rev";
};

zone
"0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.INT" {
        type master;
        file "localhost.rev";
};

// NB: Do not use the IP addresses below, they are faked, and only
// serve demonstration/documentation purposes!
//
// Example secondary config entries.  It can be convenient to become
// a secondary at least for the zone where your own domain is in.  Ask
// your network administrator for the IP address of the responsible
// primary.
//
// Never forget to include the reverse lookup (IN-ADDR.ARPA) zone!
// (This is the first bytes of the respective IP address, in reverse
// order, with ".IN-ADDR.ARPA" appended.)
//
// Before starting to setup a primary zone, better make sure you fully
// understand how DNS and BIND works, however.  There are sometimes
// unobvious pitfalls.  Setting up a secondary is comparably simpler.
//
// NB: Don't blindly enable the examples below. :-)  Use actual names
// and addresses instead.
//
// NOTE!!! FreeBSD runs bind in a sandbox (see named_flags in rc.conf).
// The directory containing the secondary zones must be write accessible
// to bind.  The following sequence is suggested:
//
//      mkdir /etc/namedb/s
//      chown bind:bind /etc/namedb/s
//      chmod 750 /etc/namedb/s

For more information on running BIND in a sandbox, see Running named in a sandbox.

/*
zone "example.com" {
        type slave;
        file "s/example.com.bak";
        masters {
                192.168.1.1;
        };
};

zone "0.168.192.in-addr.arpa" {
        type slave;
        file "s/0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.bak";
        masters {
                192.168.1.1;
        };
};
*/

In named.conf, these are examples of slave entries for a forward and reverse zone.

For each new zone served, a new zone entry must be added to named.conf

For example, the simplest zone entry for example.org can look like:

zone "example.org" {
    type master;
    file "example.org";
};

The zone is a master, as indicated by the type statement, holding its zone information in /etc/namedb/example.org indicated by the file statement.

zone "example.org" {
    type slave;
    file "example.org";
};

In the slave case, the zone information is transferred from the master name server for the particular zone, and saved in the file specified. If and when the master server dies or is unreachable, the slave name server will have the transferred zone information and will be able to serve it.

19.11.6.3. Zone Files

An example master zone file for example.org (existing within /etc/namedb/example.org) is as follows:

$TTL 3600

example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
                        5               ; Serial
                        10800           ; Refresh
                        3600            ; Retry
                        604800          ; Expire
                        86400 )         ; Minimum TTL

; DNS Servers
@       IN NS           ns1.example.org.
@       IN NS           ns2.example.org.

; Machine Names
localhost       IN A    127.0.0.1
ns1             IN A    3.2.1.2
ns2             IN A    3.2.1.3
mail            IN A    3.2.1.10
@               IN A    3.2.1.30

; Aliases
www             IN CNAME        @

; MX Record
@               IN MX   10      mail.example.org.

Note that every hostname ending in a ``.'' is an exact hostname, whereas everything without a trailing ``.'' is referenced to the origin. For example, www is translated into www + origin. In our fictitious zone file, our origin is example.org., so www would translate to www.example.org.

The format of a zone file follows:

recordname      IN recordtype   value

The most commonly used DNS records:

SOA

start of zone authority

NS

an authoritative name server

A

A host address

CNAME

the canonical name for an alias

MX

mail exchanger

PTR

a domain name pointer (used in reverse DNS)

example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
                        5               ; Serial
                        10800           ; Refresh after 3 hours
                        3600            ; Retry after 1 hour
                        604800          ; Expire after 1 week
                        86400 )         ; Minimum TTL of 1 day
example.org.

the domain name, also the origin for this zone file.

ns1.example.org.

the primary/authoritative name server for this zone

admin.example.org.

the responsible person for this zone, email address with @ replaced. ( becomes admin.example.org)

5

the serial number of the file. this must be incremented each time the zone file is modified. Nowadays, many admins prefer a yyyymmddrr format for the serial number. 2001041002 would mean last modified 04/10/2001, the latter 02 being the second time the zone file has been modified this day. The serial number is important as it alerts slave name servers for a zone when it is updated.

@       IN NS           ns1.example.org.

This is an NS entry. Every name server that is going to reply authoritatively for the zone must have one of these entries. The @ as seen here could have been example.org. The @ translates to the origin.

localhost       IN A    127.0.0.1
ns1             IN A    3.2.1.2
ns2             IN A    3.2.1.3
mail            IN A    3.2.1.10
@               IN A    3.2.1.30

The A record indicates machine names. As seen above, ns1.example.org would resolve to 3.2.1.2. Again, the origin symbol, @, is used here, thus meaning example.org would resolve to 3.2.1.30.

www             IN CNAME        @

The canonical name record is usually used for giving aliases to a machine. In the example, www is aliased to the machine addressed to the origin, or example.org (3.2.1.30). CNAMEs can be used to provide alias hostnames, or round robin one hostname among multiple machines.

@               IN MX   10      mail.example.org.

The MX record indicates which mail servers are responsible for handling incoming mail for the zone. mail.example.org is the hostname of the mail server, and 10 being the priority of that mail server.

One can have several mail servers, with priorities of 3, 2, 1. A mail server attempting to deliver to example.org would first try the highest priority MX, then the second highest, etc, until the mail can be properly delivered.

For in-addr.arpa zone files (reverse DNS), the same format is used, except with PTR entries instead of A or CNAME.

$TTL 3600

1.2.3.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
                        5               ; Serial
                        10800           ; Refresh
                        3600            ; Retry
                        604800          ; Expire
                        3600 )          ; Minimum

@       IN NS   ns1.example.org.
@       IN NS   ns2.example.org.

2       IN PTR  ns1.example.org.
3       IN PTR  ns2.example.org.
10      IN PTR  mail.example.org.
30      IN PTR  example.org.

This file gives the proper IP address to hostname mappings of our above fictitious domain.

19.11.7. Caching Name Server

A caching name server is a name server that is not authoritative for any zones. It simply asks queries of its own, and remembers them for later use. To set one up, just configure the name server as usual, omitting any inclusions of zones.

19.11.8. Running named in a Sandbox

For added security you may want to run named(8) as an unprivileged user, and configure it to chroot(8) into a sandbox directory. This makes everything outside of the sandbox inaccessible to the named daemon. Should named be compromised, this will help to reduce the damage that can be caused. By default, FreeBSD has a user and a group called bind, intended for this use.

Note: Various people would recommend that instead of configuring named to chroot, you should run named inside a jail(8). This section does not attempt to cover this situation.

Since named will not be able to access anything outside of the sandbox (such as shared libraries, log sockets, and so on), there are a number of steps that need to be followed in order to allow named to function correctly. In the following checklist, it is assumed that the path to the sandbox is /etc/namedb and that you have made no prior modifications to the contents of this directory. Perform the following steps as root.

  • Create all directories that named expects to see:

    # cd /etc/namedb
# mkdir -p bin dev etc var/tmp var/run master slave
# chown bind:bind slave var/*(1)
    (1)
    named only needs write access to these directories, so that is all we give it.

  • Rearrange and create basic zone and configuration files:

    # cp /etc/localtime etc(1)
# mv named.conf etc && ln -sf etc/named.conf
# mv named.root master
# sh make-localhost && mv localhost.rev localhost-v6.rev master
# cat > master/named.localhost
$ORIGIN localhost.
$TTL 6h
@   IN  SOA localhost. postmaster.localhost. (
            1   ; serial
            3600    ; refresh
            1800    ; retry
            604800  ; expiration
            3600 )  ; minimum
    IN  NS  localhost.
    IN  A       127.0.0.1
^D
    (1)
    This allows named to log the correct time to syslogd(8)

  • If you are running a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.9-RELEASE, build a statically linked copy of named-xfer, and copy it into the sandbox:

    # cd /usr/src/lib/libisc
# make cleandir && make cleandir && make depend && make all
# cd /usr/src/lib/libbind
# make cleandir && make cleandir && make depend && make all
# cd /usr/src/libexec/named-xfer
# make cleandir && make cleandir && make depend && make NOSHARED=yes all
# cp named-xfer /etc/namedb/bin && chmod 555 /etc/namedb/bin/named-xfer(1)

    After your statically linked named-xfer is installed some cleaning up is required, to avoid leaving stale copies of libraries or programs in your source tree:

    # cd /usr/src/lib/libisc
# make cleandir
# cd /usr/src/lib/libbind
# make cleandir
# cd /usr/src/libexec/named-xfer
# make cleandir
    (1)
    This step has been reported to fail occasionally. If this happens to you, then issue the command:
    # cd /usr/src && make cleandir && make cleandir

    and delete your /usr/obj tree:

    # rm -fr /usr/obj && mkdir /usr/obj

    This will clean out any ``cruft'' from your source tree, and retrying the steps above should then work.

    If you are running FreeBSD version 4.9-RELEASE or later, then the copy of named-xfer in /usr/libexec is statically linked by default, and you can simply use cp(1) to copy it into your sandbox.

  • Make a dev/null that named can see and write to:

    # cd /etc/namedb/dev && mknod null c 2 2
# chmod 666 null

  • Symlink /var/run/ndc to /etc/namedb/var/run/ndc:

    # ln -sf /etc/namedb/var/run/ndc /var/run/ndc

    Note: This simply avoids having to specify the -c option to ndc(8) every time you run it. Since the contents of /var/run are deleted on boot, if this is something that you find useful you may wish to add this command to root's crontab, making use of the @reboot option. See crontab(5) for more information regarding this.

  • Configure syslogd(8) to create an extra log socket that named can write to. To do this, add -l /etc/namedb/dev/log to the syslogd_flags variable in /etc/rc.conf.

  • Arrange to have named start and chroot itself to the sandbox by adding the following to /etc/rc.conf:

    named_enable="YES"
named_flags="-u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb /etc/named.conf"

    Note: Note that the configuration file /etc/named.conf is denoted by a full pathname relative to the sandbox, i.e. in the line above, the file referred to is actually /etc/namedb/etc/named.conf.

The next step is to edit /etc/namedb/etc/named.conf so that named knows which zones to load and where to find them on the disk. There follows a commented example (anything not specifically commented here is no different from the setup for a DNS server not running in a sandbox):

options {
        directory "/";(1)
        named-xfer "/bin/named-xfer";(2)
        version "";     // Don't reveal BIND version
        query-source address * port 53;
};
// ndc control socket
controls {
        unix "/var/run/ndc" perm 0600 owner 0 group 0;
};
// Zones follow:
zone "localhost" IN {
        type master;
        file "master/named.localhost";(3)
        allow-transfer { localhost; };
        notify no;
};
zone "0.0.127.in-addr.arpa" IN {
        type master;
        file "master/localhost.rev";
        allow-transfer { localhost; };
        notify no;
};
zone "0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.int" {
    type master;
    file "master/localhost-v6.rev";
    allow-transfer { localhost; };
    notify no;
};
zone "." IN {
        type hint;
        file "master/named.root";
};
zone "private.example.net" in {
        type master;
        file "master/private.example.net.db";
    allow-transfer { 192.168.10.0/24; };
};
zone "10.168.192.in-addr.arpa" in {
        type slave;
        masters { 192.168.10.2; };
        file "slave/192.168.10.db";(4)
};
(1)
The directory statement is specified as /, since all files that named needs are within this directory (recall that this is equivalent to a ``normal'' user's /etc/namedb.
(2)
Specifies the full path to the named-xfer binary (from named's frame of reference). This is necessary since named is compiled to look for named-xfer in /usr/libexec by default.
(3)
Specifies the filename (relative to the directory statement above) where named can find the zonefile for this zone.
(4)
Specifies the filename (relative to the directory statement above) where named should write a copy of the zonefile for this zone after successfully transferring it from the master server. This is why we needed to change the ownership of the directory slave to bind in the setup stages above.

After completing the steps above, either reboot your server or restart syslogd(8) and start named(8), making sure to use the new options specified in syslogd_flags and named_flags. You should now be running a sandboxed copy of named!

19.11.9. Security

Although BIND is the most common implementation of DNS, there is always the issue of security. Possible and exploitable security holes are sometimes found.

It is a good idea to subscribe to CERT and freebsd-security-notifications to stay up to date with the current Internet and FreeBSD security issues.

Tip: If a problem arises, keeping sources up to date and having a fresh build of named would not hurt.

19.11.10. Further Reading

BIND/named manual pages: ndc(8) named(8) named.conf(5)

19.12. NTP

Contributed by Tom Hukins.

19.12.1. Overview

Over time, a computer's clock is prone to drift. As time passes, the computer's clock becomes less accurate. NTP (Network Time Protocol) is one way to ensure your clock is right.

Many Internet services rely on, or greatly benefit from, computers' clocks being accurate. For example, a Web server may receive requests to send a file if it has modified since a certain time. Services such as cron(8) run commands at a given time. If the clock is inaccurate, these commands may not run when expected.

FreeBSD ships with the ntpd(8) NTP server which can be used to query other NTP servers to set the clock on your machine or provide time services to others.

19.12.2. Choosing Appropriate NTP Servers

In order to synchronize your clock, you will need to find one or more NTP servers to use. Your network administrator or ISP may have set up an NTP server for this purpose--check their documentation to see if this is the case. There is a list of publicly accessible NTP servers which you can use to find an NTP server near to you. Make sure you are aware of the policy for any servers you choose, and ask for permission if required.

Choosing several unconnected NTP servers is a good idea in case one of the servers you are using becomes unreachable or its clock is unreliable. ntpd(8) uses the responses it receives from other servers intelligently--it will favor unreliable servers less than reliable ones.

19.12.3. Configuring Your Machine

19.12.3.1. Basic Configuration

If you only wish to synchronize your clock when the machine boots up, you can use ntpdate(8). This may be appropriate for some desktop machines which are frequently rebooted and only require infrequent synchronization, but most machines should run ntpd(8).

Using ntpdate(8) at boot time is also a good idea for machines that run ntpd(8). The ntpd(8) program changes the clock gradually, whereas ntpdate(8) sets the clock, no matter how great the difference between a machine's current clock setting and the correct time.

To enable ntpdate(8) at boot time, add ntpdate_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf. You will also need to specify all servers you wish to synchronize with and any flags to be passed to ntpdate(8) in ntpdate_flags.

19.12.3.2. General Configuration

NTP is configured by the /etc/ntp.conf file in the format described in ntp.conf(5). Here is a simple example:

server ntplocal.example.com prefer
server timeserver.example.org
server ntp2a.example.net

driftfile /var/db/ntp.drift

The server option specifies which servers are to be used, with one server listed on each line. If a server is specified with the prefer argument, as with ntplocal.example.com, that server is preferred over other servers. A response from a preferred server will be discarded if it differs significantly from other servers' responses, otherwise it will be used without any consideration to other responses. The prefer argument is normally used for NTP servers that are known to be highly accurate, such as those with special time monitoring hardware.

The driftfile option specifies which file is used to store the system clock's frequency offset. The ntpd(8) program uses this to automatically compensate for the clock's natural drift, allowing it to maintain a reasonably correct setting even if it is cut off from all external time sources for a period of time.

The driftfile option specifies which file is used to store information about previous responses from the NTP servers you are using. This file contains internal information for NTP. It should not be modified by any other process.

19.12.3.3. Controlling Access to Your Server

By default, your NTP server will be accessible to all hosts on the Internet. The restrict option in /etc/ntp.conf allows you to control which machines can access your server.

If you want to deny all machines from accessing your NTP server, add the following line to /etc/ntp.conf:

restrict default ignore

If you only want to allow machines within your own network to synchronize their clocks with your server, but ensure they are not allowed to configure the server or used as peers to synchronize against, add

restrict 192.168.1.0 mask 255.255.255.0 notrust nomodify notrap

instead, where 192.168.1.0 is an IP address on your network and 255.255.255.0 is your network's netmask.

/etc/ntp.conf can contain multiple restrict options. For more details, see the Access Control Support subsection of ntp.conf(5).

19.12.4. Running the NTP Server

To ensure the NTP server is started at boot time, add the line xntpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf. If you wish to pass additional flags to ntpd(8), edit the xntpd_flags parameter in /etc/rc.conf.

To start the server without rebooting your machine, run ntpd being sure to specify any additional parameters from xntpd_flags in /etc/rc.conf. For example:

# ntpd -p /var/run/ntpd.pid

Note: Under FreeBSD 5.X, various options in /etc/rc.conf have been renamed. Thus, you have to replace every instance of xntpd with ntpd in the options above.

19.12.5. Using ntpd with a Temporary Internet Connection

The ntpd(8) program does not need a permanent connection to the Internet to function properly. However, if you have a temporary connection that is configured to dial out on demand, it is a good idea to prevent NTP traffic from triggering a dial out or keeping the connection alive. If you are using user PPP, you can use filter directives in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. For example:

 set filter dial 0 deny udp src eq 123
 # Prevent NTP traffic from initiating dial out
 set filter dial 1 permit 0 0
 set filter alive 0 deny udp src eq 123
 # Prevent incoming NTP traffic from keeping the connection open
 set filter alive 1 deny udp dst eq 123
 # Prevent outgoing NTP traffic from keeping the connection open
 set filter alive 2 permit 0/0 0/0

For more details see the PACKET FILTERING section in ppp(8) and the examples in /usr/share/examples/ppp/.

Note: Some Internet access providers block low-numbered ports, preventing NTP from functioning since replies never reach your machine.

19.12.6. Further Information

Documentation for the NTP server can be found in /usr/share/doc/ntp/ in HTML format.

19.13. Network Address Translation

Contributed by Chern Lee.

19.13.1. Overview

FreeBSD's Network Address Translation daemon, commonly known as natd(8) is a daemon that accepts incoming raw IP packets, changes the source to the local machine and re-injects these packets back into the outgoing IP packet stream. natd(8) does this by changing the source IP address and port such that when data is received back, it is able to determine the original location of the data and forward it back to its original requester.

The most common use of NAT is to perform what is commonly known as Internet Connection Sharing.

19.13.2. Setup

Due to the diminishing IP space in IPv4, and the increased number of users on high-speed consumer lines such as cable or DSL, people are increasingly in need of an Internet Connection Sharing solution. The ability to connect several computers online through one connection and IP address makes natd(8) a reasonable choice.

Most commonly, a user has a machine connected to a cable or DSL line with one IP address and wishes to use this one connected computer to provide Internet access to several more over a LAN.

To do this, the FreeBSD machine on the Internet must act as a gateway. This gateway machine must have two NICs--one for connecting to the Internet router, the other connecting to a LAN. All the machines on the LAN are connected through a hub or switch.

A setup like this is commonly used to share an Internet connection. One of the LAN machines is connected to the Internet. The rest of the machines access the Internet through that ``gateway'' machine.

19.13.3. Configuration

The following options must be in the kernel configuration file:

options IPFIREWALL
options IPDIVERT

Additionally, at choice, the following may also be suitable:

options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT
options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE

The following must be in /etc/rc.conf:

gateway_enable="YES"
firewall_enable="YES"
firewall_type="OPEN"
natd_enable="YES"
natd_interface="fxp0"
natd_flags=""
gateway_enable="YES" Sets up the machine to act as a gateway. Running sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding=1 would have the same effect.
firewall_enable="YES" Enables the firewall rules in /etc/rc.firewall at boot.
firewall_type="OPEN" This specifies a predefined firewall ruleset that allows anything in. See /etc/rc.firewall for additional types.
natd_interface="fxp0" Indicates which interface to forward packets through (the interface connected to the Internet).
natd_flags="" Any additional configuration options passed to natd(8) on boot.

Having the previous options defined in /etc/rc.conf would run natd -interface fxp0 at boot. This can also be run manually.

Each machine and interface behind the LAN should be assigned IP address numbers in the private network space as defined by RFC 1918 and have a default gateway of the natd machine's internal IP address.

For example, client A and B behind the LAN have IP addresses of 192.168.0.2 and 192.168.0.3, while the natd machine's LAN interface has an IP address of 192.168.0.1. Client A and B's default gateway must be set to that of the natd machine, 192.168.0.1. The natd machine's external, or Internet interface does not require any special modification for natd(8) to work.

19.13.4. Port Redirection

The drawback with natd(8) is that the LAN clients are not accessible from the Internet. Clients on the LAN can make outgoing connections to the world but cannot receive incoming ones. This presents a problem if trying to run Internet services on one of the LAN client machines. A simple way around this is to redirect selected Internet ports on the natd machine to a LAN client.

For example, an IRC server runs on client A, and a web server runs on client B. For this to work properly, connections received on ports 6667 (IRC) and 80 (web) must be redirected to the respective machines.

The -redirect_port must be passed to natd(8) with the proper options. The syntax is as follows:

     -redirect_port proto targetIP:targetPORT[-targetPORT]
                 [aliasIP:]aliasPORT[-aliasPORT]
                 [remoteIP[:remotePORT[-remotePORT]]]

In the above example, the argument should be:

    -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.2:6667 6667
    -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.3:80 80

This will redirect the proper tcp ports to the LAN client machines.

The -redirect_port argument can be used to indicate port ranges over individual ports. For example, tcp 192.168.0.2:2000-3000 2000-3000 would redirect all connections received on ports 2000 to 3000 to ports 2000 to 3000 on client A.

These options can be used when directly running natd(8) or placed within the natd_flags="" option in /etc/rc.conf.

For further configuration options, consult natd(8)

19.13.5. Address Redirection

Address redirection is useful if several IP addresses are available, yet they must be on one machine. With this, natd(8) can assign each LAN client its own external IP address. natd(8) then rewrites outgoing packets from the LAN clients with the proper external IP address and redirects all traffic incoming on that particular IP address back to the specific LAN client. This is also known as static NAT. For example, the IP addresses 128.1.1.1, 128.1.1.2, and 128.1.1.3 belong to the natd gateway machine. 128.1.1.1 can be used as the natd gateway machine's external IP address, while 128.1.1.2 and 128.1.1.3 are forwarded back to LAN clients A and B.

The -redirect_address syntax is as follows:

-redirect_address localIP publicIP
localIP The internal IP address of the LAN client.
publicIP The external IP address corresponding to the LAN client.

In the example, this argument would read:

-redirect_address 192.168.0.2 128.1.1.2
-redirect_address 192.168.0.3 128.1.1.3

Like -redirect_port, these arguments are also placed within the natd_flags="" option of /etc/rc.conf. With address redirection, there is no need for port redirection since all data received on a particular IP address is redirected.

The external IP addresses on the natd machine must be active and aliased to the external interface. Look at rc.conf(5) to do so.

19.14. The inetd ``Super-Server''

Contributed by Chern Lee.

19.14.1. Overview

inetd(8) is referred to as the ``Internet Super-Server'' because it manages connections for several daemons. Programs that provide network service are commonly known as daemons. inetd serves as a managing server for other daemons. When a connection is received by inetd, it determines which daemon the connection is destined for, spawns the particular daemon and delegates the socket to it. Running one instance of inetd reduces the overall system load as compared to running each daemon individually in stand-alone mode.

Primarily, inetd is used to spawn other daemons, but several trivial protocols are handled directly, such as chargen, auth, and daytime.

This section will cover the basics in configuring inetd through its command-line options and its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf.

19.14.2. Settings

inetd is initialized through the /etc/rc.conf system. The inetd_enable option is set to ``NO'' by default, but is often times turned on by sysinstall with the medium security profile. Placing:

inetd_enable="YES"
or 
inetd_enable="NO"
into /etc/rc.conf can enable or disable inetd starting at boot time.

Additionally, different command-line options can be passed to inetd via the inetd_flags option.

19.14.3. Command-Line Options

inetd synopsis:

inetd [-d] [-l] [-w] [-W] [-c maximum] [-C rate] [-a address | hostname] [-p filename] [-R rate] [configuration file]

-d

Turn on debugging.

-l

Turn on logging of successful connections.

-w

Turn on TCP Wrapping for external services (on by default).

-W

Turn on TCP Wrapping for internal services which are built into inetd (on by default).

-c maximum

Specify the default maximum number of simultaneous invocations of each service; the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis with the max-child parameter.

-C rate

Specify the default maximum number of times a service can be invoked from a single IP address in one minute; the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis with the max-connections-per-ip-per-minute parameter.

-R rate

Specify the maximum number of times a service can be invoked in one minute; the default is 256. A rate of 0 allows an unlimited number of invocations.

-a

Specify one specific IP address to bind to. Alternatively, a hostname can be specified, in which case the IPv4 or IPv6 address which corresponds to that hostname is used. Usually a hostname is specified when inetd is run inside a jail(8), in which case the hostname corresponds to the jail(8) environment.

When hostname specification is used and both IPv4 and IPv6 bindings are desired, one entry with the appropriate protocol type for each binding is required for each service in /etc/inetd.conf. For example, a TCP-based service would need two entries, one using ``tcp4'' for the protocol and the other using ``tcp6''.

-p

Specify an alternate file in which to store the process ID.

These options can be passed to inetd using the inetd_flags option in /etc/rc.conf. By default, inetd_flags is set to ``-wW'', which turns on TCP wrapping for inetd's internal and external services. For novice users, these parameters usually do not need to be modified or even entered in /etc/rc.conf.

Note: An external service is a daemon outside of inetd, which is invoked when a connection is received for it. On the other hand, an internal service is one that inetd has the facility of offering within itself.

19.14.4. inetd.conf

Configuration of inetd is controlled through the /etc/inetd.conf file.

When a modification is made to /etc/inetd.conf, inetd can be forced to re-read its configuration file by sending a HangUP signal to the inetd process as shown:

Example 19-4. Sending inetd a HangUP Signal

# kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`

Each line of the configuration file specifies an individual daemon. Comments in the file are preceded by a ``#''. The format of /etc/inetd.conf is as follows:

service-name
socket-type
protocol
{wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]]
user[:group][/login-class]
server-program
server-program-arguments

An example entry for the ftpd daemon using IPv4:

ftp     stream  tcp     nowait  root    /usr/libexec/ftpd       ftpd -l
service-name

This is the service name of the particular daemon. It must correspond to a service listed in /etc/services. This determines which port inetd must listen to. If a new service is being created, it must be placed in /etc/services first.

socket-type

Either stream, dgram, raw, or seqpacket. stream must be used for connection-based, TCP daemons, while dgram is used for daemons utilizing the UDP transport protocol.

protocol

One of the following:

Protocol Explanation
tcp, tcp4 TCP IPv4
udp, udp4 UDP IPv4
tcp6 TCP IPv6
udp6 UDP IPv6
tcp46 Both TCP IPv4 and v6
udp46 Both UDP IPv4 and v6
{wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]]

wait|nowait indicates whether the daemon invoked from inetd is able to handle its own socket or not. dgram socket types must use the wait option, while stream socket daemons, which are usually multi-threaded, should use nowait. wait usually hands off multiple sockets to a single daemon, while nowait spawns a child daemon for each new socket.

The maximum number of child daemons inetd may spawn can be set using the max-child option. If a limit of ten instances of a particular daemon is needed, a /10 would be placed after nowait.

In addition to max-child, another option limiting the maximum connections from a single place to a particular daemon can be enabled. max-connections-per-ip-per-minute does just this. A value of ten here would limit any particular IP address connecting to a particular service to ten attempts per minute. This is useful to prevent intentional or unintentional resource consumption and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks to a machine.

In this field, wait or nowait is mandatory. max-child and max-connections-per-ip-per-minute are optional.

A stream-type multi-threaded daemon without any max-child or max-connections-per-ip-per-minute limits would simply be: nowait

The same daemon with a maximum limit of ten daemons would read: nowait/10

Additionally, the same setup with a limit of twenty connections per IP address per minute and a maximum total limit of ten child daemons would read: nowait/10/20

These options are all utilized by the default settings of the fingerd daemon, as seen here:

finger stream  tcp     nowait/3/10 nobody /usr/libexec/fingerd fingerd -s
user

The user is the username that the particular daemon should run as. Most commonly, daemons run as the root user. For security purposes, it is common to find some servers running as the daemon user, or the least privileged nobody user.

server-program

The full path of the daemon to be executed when a connection is received. If the daemon is a service provided by inetd internally, then internal should be used.

server-program-arguments

This works in conjunction with server-program by specifying the arguments, starting with argv[0], passed to the daemon on invocation. If mydaemon -d is the command line, mydaemon -d would be the value of server program arguments. Again, if the daemon is an internal service, use internal here.

19.14.5. Security

Depending on the security profile chosen at install, many of inetd's daemons may be enabled by default. If there is no apparent need for a particular daemon, disable it! Place a ``#'' in front of the daemon in question, and send a hangup signal to inetd. Some daemons, such as fingerd, may not be desired at all because they provide an attacker with too much information.

Some daemons are not security-conscious and have long, or non-existent timeouts for connection attempts. This allows an attacker to slowly send connections to a particular daemon, thus saturating available resources. It may be a good idea to place ip-per-minute and max-child limitations on certain daemons.

By default, TCP wrapping is turned on. Consult the hosts_access(5) manual page for more information on placing TCP restrictions on various inetd invoked daemons.

19.14.6. Miscellaneous

daytime, time, echo, discard, chargen, and auth are all internally provided services of inetd.

The auth service provides identity (ident, identd) network services, and is configurable to a certain degree.

Consult the inetd(8) manual page for more in-depth information.

19.15. Parallel Line IP (PLIP)

PLIP lets us run TCP/IP between parallel ports. It is useful on machines without network cards, or to install on laptops. In this section, we will discuss:

  • Creating a parallel (laplink) cable.

  • Connecting two computers with PLIP.

19.15.1. Creating a Parallel Cable

You can purchase a parallel cable at most computer supply stores. If you cannot do that, or you just want to know how it is done, the following table shows how to make one out of a normal parallel printer cable.

Table 19-1. Wiring a Parallel Cable for Networking

A-name A-End B-End Descr. Post/Bit

DATA0
-ERROR

2
15

15
2

 Data

0/0x01
1/0x08

DATA1
+SLCT

3
13

13
3

 Data

0/0x02
1/0x10

DATA2
+PE

4
12

12
4

 Data

0/0x04
1/0x20

DATA3
-ACK

5
10

10
5

 Strobe

0/0x08
1/0x40

DATA4
BUSY

6
11

11
6

 Data

0/0x10
1/0x80
GND 18-25 18-25 GND -

19.15.2. Setting Up PLIP

First, you have to get a laplink cable. Then, confirm that both computers have a kernel with lpt(4) driver support:

# grep lp /var/run/dmesg.boot
lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0
lpt0: Interrupt-driven port

The parallel port must be an interrupt driven port, under FreeBSD 4.X, you should have a line similar to the the following on in your kernel configuration file:

device ppc0 at isa? irq 7

Under FreeBSD 5.X, the /boot/device.hints file should contain the following lines:

hint.ppc.0.at="isa"
hint.ppc.0.irq="7"

Then check if the kernel configuration file has a device plip line or if the plip.ko kernel module is loaded. In both cases the parallel networking interface shoud appears when you directly use the ifconfig(8) command. Under FreeBSD 4.X like this:

# ifconfig lp0
lp0: flags=8810<POINTOPOINT,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500

and for FreeBSD 5.X:

# ifconfig plip0
plip0: flags=8810<POINTOPOINT,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500

Note: The device name used for parallel interface is different between FreeBSD 4.X (lpX) and FreeBSD 5.X (plipX).

Plug in the laplink cable into the parallel interface on both computers.

Configure the network interface parameters on both sites as root. For example, if you want connect the host host1 running FreeBSD 4.X with host2 running FreeBSD 5.X:

                 host1 <-----> host2
IP Address    10.0.0.1      10.0.0.2

Configure the interface on host1 by doing:

# ifconfig lp0 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.2

Configure the interface on host2 by doing:

# ifconfig plip0 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.1

You now should have a working connection. Please read the manual pages lp(4) and lpt(4) for more details.

You should also add both hosts to /etc/hosts:

127.0.0.1               localhost.my.domain localhost
10.0.0.1                host1.my.domain host1
10.0.0.2                host2.my.domain

To confirm the connection works, go to each host and ping the other. For example, on host1:

# ifconfig lp0
lp0: flags=8851<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
        inet 10.0.0.1 --> 10.0.0.2 netmask 0xff000000
# netstat -r
Routing tables

Internet:
Destination        Gateway          Flags     Refs     Use      Netif Expire
host2              host1              UH          0       0       lp0
# ping -c 4 host2
PING host2 (10.0.0.2): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=0 ttl=255 time=2.774 ms
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=1 ttl=255 time=2.530 ms
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=2 ttl=255 time=2.556 ms
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=3 ttl=255 time=2.714 ms

--- host2 ping statistics ---
4 packets transmitted, 4 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 2.530/2.643/2.774/0.103 ms

19.16. IPv6

Originally Written by Aaron Kaplan. Restructured and Added by Tom Rhodes.

IPv6 (also know as IPng ``IP next generation'') is the new version of the well known IP protocol (also know as IPv4). Like the other current *BSD systems, FreeBSD includes the KAME IPv6 reference implementation. So your FreeBSD system comes with all you will need to experiment with IPv6. This section focuses on getting IPv6 configured and running.

In the early 1990s, people became aware of the rapidly diminishing address space of IPv4. Given the expansion rate of the Internet there were two major concerns:

  • Running out of addresses. Today this is not so much of a concern anymore since private address spaces (10.0.0.0/8, 192.168.0.0/24, etc.) and Network Address Translation (NAT) are being employed.

  • Router table entries were getting too large. This is still a concern today.

IPv6 deals with these and many other issues:

  • 128 bit address space. In other words theoretically there are 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 addresses available. This means there are approximately 6.67 * 10^27 IPv6 addresses per square meter on our planet.

  • Routers will only store network aggregation addresses in their routing tables thus reducing the average space of a routing table to 8192 entries.

There are also lots of other useful features of IPv6 such as:

  • Address autoconfiguration (RFC2462)

  • Anycast addresses (``one-out-of many'')

  • Mandatory multicast addresses

  • IPsec (IP security)

  • Simplified header structure

  • Mobile IP

  • IPv4-to-IPv6 transition mechanisms

For more information see:

19.16.1. Background on IPv6 Addresses

There are different types of IPv6 addresses: Unicast, Anycast and Multicast.

Unicast addresses are the well known addresses. A packet sent to a unicast address arrives exactly at the interface belonging to the address.

Anycast addresses are syntactically indistinguishable from unicast addresses but they address a group of interfaces. The packet destined for an anycast address will arrive at the nearest (in router metric) interface. Anycast addresses may only be used by routers.

Multicast addresses identify a group of interfaces. A packet destined for a multicast address will arrive at all interfaces belonging to the multicast group.

Note: The IPv4 broadcast address (usually xxx.xxx.xxx.255) is expressed by multicast addresses in IPv6.

Reserved IPv6 addresses:

ipv6-address   prefixlength(Bits)  description Notes

    ::          128 Bits            unspecified cf. 0.0.0.0 in IPv4 address
    ::1         128 Bits            loopback address cf. 127.0.0.1 in IPv4
    ::00:xx:xx:xx:xx    96 Bits             embedded IPv4   The lower 32 bits are the
                                address IPv4 address. Also called
                                ``IPv4 compatible IPv6
                                address''
    ::ff:xx:xx:xx:xx    96 Bits     IPv4 mapped     The lower 32 bits are the
                        IPv6 address    IPv4 address. For hosts
                                which do not support IPv6
    fe80:: - feb::      10 Bits     link-local  cf. loopback address in
                        IPv4
    fec0:: - fef::      10 Bits     site-local
    ff::            8 Bits      multicast
    001 (base 2)        3 Bits      global unicast  All global unicast
                                addresses are assigned from
                                this pool. The first 3 Bits
                                are ``001''.

19.16.2. Reading IPv6 Addresses

The canonical form is represented as: x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, each ``x'' being a 16 Bit hex value. For example FEBC:A574:382B:23C1:AA49:4592:4EFE:9982

Often an address will have long substrings of all zeros therefore each such substring can be abbreviated by ``::''. For example fe80::1 corresponds to the canonical form fe80:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001

A third form is to write the last 32 Bit part in the well known (decimal) IPv4 style with dots ``.'' as separators. For example 2002::10.0.0.1 corresponds to the (hexadecimal) canonical representation 2002:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0a00:0001 which in turn is equivalent to writing 2002::a00:1

By now the reader should be able to understand the following:

# ifconfig

rl0: flags=8943<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,PROMISC,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
         inet 10.0.0.10 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
         inet6 fe80::200:21ff:fe03:8e1%rl0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x1
         ether 00:00:21:03:08:e1
         media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX )
         status: active

fe80::200:21ff:fe03:8e1%rl0 is an auto configured link-local address. It includes the scrambled Ethernet MAC as part of the auto configuration.

For further information on the structure of IPv6 addresses see RFC2373.

19.16.3. Getting Connected

Currently there are four ways to connect to other IPv6 hosts and networks:

  • Join the experimental 6bone

  • Getting an IPv6 network from your upstream provider. Talk to your Internet provider for instructions.

  • Tunnel via 6-to-4

  • Use the freenet6 port if you are on a dial-up connection.

Here we will talk on how to connect to the 6bone since it currently seems to be the most popular way.

First take a look at the 6bone site and find a 6bone connection nearest to you. Write to the responsible person and with a little bit of luck you will be given instructions on how to set up your connection. Usually this involves setting up a GRE (gif) tunnel.

Here is a typical example on setting up a gif(4) tunnel:

# ifconfig gif0 create
# ifconfig gif0
gif0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1280
# ifconfig gif0 tunnel MY_IPv4_ADDR  HIS_IPv4_ADDR
# ifconfig gif0 inet6 alias MY_ASSIGNED_IPv6_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR

Replace the capitalized words by the information you received from the upstream 6bone node.

This establishes the tunnel. Check if the tunnel is working by ping6(8) 'ing ff02::1%gif0. You should receive two ping replies.

Note: In case you are intrigued by the address ff02:1%gif0, this is a multicast address. %gif0 states that the multicast address at network interface gif0 is to be used. Since we ping a multicast address the other endpoint of the tunnel should reply as well).

By now setting up a route to your 6bone uplink should be rather straightforward:

# route add -inet6 default -interface gif0
# ping6 -n MY_UPLINK

# traceroute6 www.jp.FreeBSD.org
(3ffe:505:2008:1:2a0:24ff:fe57:e561) from 3ffe:8060:100::40:2, 30 hops max, 12 byte packets
     1  atnet-meta6  14.147 ms  15.499 ms  24.319 ms
     2  6bone-gw2-ATNET-NT.ipv6.tilab.com  103.408 ms  95.072 ms *
     3  3ffe:1831:0:ffff::4  138.645 ms  134.437 ms  144.257 ms
     4  3ffe:1810:0:6:290:27ff:fe79:7677  282.975 ms  278.666 ms  292.811 ms
     5  3ffe:1800:0:ff00::4  400.131 ms  396.324 ms  394.769 ms
     6  3ffe:1800:0:3:290:27ff:fe14:cdee  394.712 ms  397.19 ms  394.102 ms

This output will differ from machine to machine. By now you should be able to reach the IPv6 site www.kame.net and see the dancing tortoise -- that is if you have a IPv6 enabled browser such as www/mozilla.

19.16.4. DNS in the IPv6 World

There are two new types of DNS records for IPv6:

  • AAAA records,

  • A6 records

Using AAAA records is straightforward. Assign your hostname to the new IPv6 address you just got by adding:

MYHOSTNAME           AAAA    MYIPv6ADDR

To your primary zone DNS file. In case you do not serve your own DNS zones ask your DNS provider. Current versions of bind (version 8.3 and 9) support AAAA records.

Chapter 20. 电子邮件

Original work by Bill Lloyd. Rewritten by Jim Mock.

20.1. 概要

``电子邮件'', 或者称为email, 是当今使用最广泛的通信方式之一. 这章将对运行在FreeBSD系统的邮件服务器做个基本的介绍. 然而, 它并不是一个完整的参考,事实上有许多重要的细节都被忽略了. 对这个主题更完整的描述, 读者可以参考列表所列出的许多优秀的书籍Appendix B.

阅读完这章后,你将会了解:

  • 什么软件组件和发送接收电子邮件相关.

  • FreeBSD下的基本sendmail配置文件在哪里.

  • 如何使用你的邮件服务器阻止被非法的垃圾邮件制造者利用.

  • 如何在你的系统安装和配置一个邮件传输代理程序, 取代sendmail.

  • 如何处理常见的邮件服务器问题.

  • 如何使用SMTP和UUCP.

  • 如何拨号连接使用mail.

  • 如何配置SMTP验证以增加安全性.

阅读这章之前,你应该了解:

  • 正确的配置你的网络连接 (Chapter 19).

  • 正确的为你的邮件服务器配置DNS信息 (Chapter 19).

  • 知道如何安装第三方软件 (Chapter 4).

20.2. 使用电子邮件

邮件交换有五个主要的部分. 它们是 : 用户端程序, 服务端程序, DNS, POP或者 IMAP协议, 当然, 还有邮件服务器它自己.

20.2.1. 用户端程序

包括一些命令行程序,比如象 mutt, pine, elm, 和 mail这些, 还有一些GUI程序比如象 balsa, xfmail 这些, 和其它一些 ``复杂的''象WWW浏览器一样的程序. 这些程序只是简单的完成 email传送到本地``邮件服务器'', 其中的一方通过呼叫一个可用的后台守护 或者通过TCP传递.

20.2.2. 邮件服务器后台守护程序

sendmail是通常使用的 (FreeBSD缺省使用它) 或者你可以使用其它的邮件服务器后台守护程序比如象 qmail, postfix, 或 exim. 当然还有一些其它的, 但是这些是被广泛使用的.

邮件服务器后台守护程序通常有两个功能--收取和发送邮件 . 它不允许你通过POP或者IMAP连接它读取你的邮件. 你必须为它添加额外的后台守护程序 .

现在已知有些老版本的 sendmail有一些严重的安全问题,然而只要你运行的是新的版本,它应该没有任何问题. 通常,总是更新你运行的软件的版本是一个不错的主意.

20.2.3. Email 和 DNS

域名系统(DNS)和它的后台守护程序 named 在email的投递过程当中扮演着一个很重要的角色 . 为了从你的站点向其它的站点传递邮件, 服务器后台守护程序 将在DNS中寻找站点决定接收邮件的服务器.

当有邮件传送给你时,它也这样工作. DNS包含主机名的数据库映射到IP地址 , 和一个主机名到邮件服务器. IP地址用一个A记录来指定. MX (邮件交换)记录指定为你接受邮件的服务器. 如果你的主机名不在MX记录内, 邮件将直接传送到你的主机.

20.2.4. 接收邮件

为你的域接收邮件是通过邮件服务器来完成. 它把收集的邮件发送给你,然后保存起来供你阅读和整理. 为了获得保存的邮件, 你必须连接到邮件服务器 . 可以使用POP或者IMAP来做这个. 如果你想直接的在邮件服务器阅读邮件 , 那么POP或者IMAP服务不是必须的.

如果你想要运行POP或者IMAP服务, 你必须做两件事:

  1. 从ports collection得到一个POP或者IMAP后台守护程序并且安装它到你的系统.

  2. 修改/etc/inetd.conf文件来加载 POP或者IMAP服务.

20.2.5. 邮件服务器

邮件服务器是通过服务器给的一个名字,这也正是它能在你的主机和网络上发送和接收邮件的原因.

20.3. sendmail 配置

Contributed by Christopher Shumway.

sendmail(8) 是FreeBSD上默认的邮件传输代理(MTA)程序. sendmail的工作是从邮件用户代理(MUA)接收邮件然后根据配置文件的定义把它们分发到适当的邮寄程序. sendmail也能接受网络连接,并且发送邮件到本地邮箱或者发送它到其它程序.

sendmail使用如下的配置文件 :

文件名 功能
/etc/mail/access sendmail 访问数据库文件
/etc/mail/aliases 邮箱别名
/etc/mail/local-host-names sendmail 接收邮件主机列表
/etc/mail/mailer.conf 邮寄配置程序
/etc/mail/mailertable 邮件分发列表
/etc/mail/sendmail.cf sendmail的主配置文件
/etc/mail/virtusertable 虚拟用户和域列表

20.3.1. /etc/mail/access

访问数据库定义了什么主机或者IP地址可以访问本地邮件服务器和它们是哪种类型的访问. 主机可能会列出OK, REJECT, RELAY 或者简单的通过 sendmail的出错处理程序检测一个给定的邮件错误. 主机默认列出OK, 允许传送邮件到主机,只要邮件的最后目的地是本地主机. 列出REJECT将拒绝所有的邮件连接 . 如果带有RELAY选项的主机将被允许通过这个邮件服务器发送邮件到任何地方.

Example 20-1. 配置sendmail 访问数据库

cyberspammer.com                550 We don't accept mail from spammers
FREE.STEALTH.MAILER@            550 We don't accept mail from spammers
another.source.of.spam          REJECT
okay.cyberspammer.com           OK
128.32                          RELAY

在上面的例子中我们有5条记录. 与左边列表匹配的发件人受到右边列表动作的影响. 前边的两个例子给出了 sendmail的出错处理程序检测到的错误代码 . 当一个邮件与左边列表相匹配时,这个信息会被打印到远程主机上 . 下一条记录拒绝来自Internet上的一个特别主机的邮件another.source.of.spam. 接下来的记录允许来自 okay.cyberspammer.com的邮件连接, 这条记录比上面那行cyberspammer.com更准确. 更多的准确匹配使不准确的匹配无效. 最后一行允许电子邮件从主机和128.32开头的IP地址转发. 这些主机将被允许通过这台邮件服务器前往其它邮件服务器发送邮件 .

当这个文件被升级的时候,你必须在 /etc/mail/运行make升级数据库.

20.3.2. /etc/mail/aliases

别名数据库包含一个扩展到用户,程序或者其它别名的虚拟邮箱列表 . 下面是一些在 /etc/mail/aliases中使用的例子:

Example 20-2. 邮件别名

root: localuser
ftp-bugs: joe,eric,paul
bit.bucket:  /dev/null
procmail: "|/usr/local/bin/procmail"

文件格式比较简单; 邮箱名在冒号左边,右边是扩展的目标. 第一个例子简单的扩展邮箱root 到邮箱localuser, 它可以在别名数据库中被找到 . 如果没有找到匹配的, 那么这个信息会被发送给本地用户 localuser. 接下来的例子显示了一个邮件列表 . 发送到ftp-bugs邮箱的邮件会被扩展为三个本地邮箱 joe, eric, 和 paul. 注意 一个远程邮箱可以用user@example.com的形式指定. 下个例子显示将邮件写到/dev/null文件. 最后一个例子向你展示了传送邮件到一个程序, 在这个例子里邮件通过UNIX管道被写到 /usr/local/bin/procmail 标准输入里.

当这个文件被升级时, 你必须在/etc/mail/运行 make来升级数据库.

20.3.3. /etc/mail/local-host-names

这是一个sendmail(8) 被接受为一个本地主机名的主机名列表 . 可以放入任何 sendmail将从那里收发邮件的域名或主机. 例如, 如果这个邮件服务器从域 example.com和主机 mail.example.com接收邮件, 它的 local-host-names文件,可以看起来象如下这样 :

example.com
mail.example.com

当这个文件被升级, sendmail(8) 必须重新启动,以便更新设置.

20.3.4. /etc/mail/sendmail.cf

sendmail的主配置文件 , sendmail.cf 控制着 sendmail的所有行为, 包括从重写邮件地址到打印拒绝远程邮件服务器信息等所有事 . 当然, 作为一个不同的角色,这个配置文件是相当复杂的,它的细节部分已经超出了本节的范围. 幸运的是, 这个文件对于标准的邮件服务器来说很少需要被改动 .

sendmail主配置文件可以用 m4(1)宏定义sendmail的特性和行为. 它的细节请看/usr/src/contrib/sendmail/cf/README.

当这个文件被修改时, sendmail 必须重新启动以便对新修改生效 .

20.3.5. /etc/mail/virtusertable

virtusertable映射虚拟域名和邮箱到真实的邮箱 . 这些邮箱可以是本地的,远程的, /etc/mail/aliases中定义的别名或一个文件.

Example 20-3. 虚拟域邮件映射的例子

root@example.com                root
postmaster@example.com          postmaster@noc.example.net
@example.com                    joe

在上面这个例子里, 我们映射了一个域 example.com. 这个文件用一个最初匹配的文件处理. 第一项映射 root@example.com 到本地邮箱root. 下一项映射 postmaster@example.com 到noc.example.net主机的postmaster邮箱. 最后, 如果域example.com没有被什么匹配, 它将与最后一个映射匹配, 在example.com域,每个其它邮件信息地址到某一个主机被匹配. 在这里被映射到本地邮箱joe.

20.4. 改变你的邮件传输代理程序

Written by Andrew Boothman. Information taken from e-mails written by Gregory Neil Shapiro.

先前已经提到, FreeBSD中的 sendmail已经安装了你的 MTA (邮件传输代理程序). 因此它它负责着你的收发邮件的工作 .

然而, 基于不同的理由, 一些系统管理员想要改变他们系统的 MTA. 这些理由从简单的想要尝试另一个MTA,到需要一个特殊的特性或者package依赖某个邮寄程序等等. 幸运的是, 不管是什么理由, FreeBSD 都能容易的改变它.

20.4.1. 安装一个新的MTA

对于可用的MTA你有很多的选择. 一个好的出发点是 FreeBSD Ports Collection 在那里你能找到很多 . 当然你可以从任何位置不受任何限制的使用MTA, 只要你能让它运行在 FreeBSD下.

开始安装你的新MTA. 一旦它被安装,它可以让你有机会决定它是否能满足你的需要和在接管sendmail之前让你有机会配置你的新软件 . 当完成这些之后, 你应该确信安装的新软件不会尝试更改系统的二进制文件例如象/usr/bin/sendmail. 除此以外, 你的新邮件软件启用之前要已经配置好它.

具体配置请参考你所选择的MTA软件的配置文档或其它相关资料 .

20.4.2. 停用sendmail

值得注意的是启动 sendmail在4.5-RELEASE版本 和 4.6-RELEASE版本之间有些不同. 因此, 停用它的过程也稍有不同.

20.4.2.1. FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE版本2002/4/4之前和更早前版本 (包括4.5-RELEASE版本和更早前的)

Enter:

sendmail_enable="NO"

照上面方法编辑/etc/rc.conf文件. 它将停用 sendmail接收邮件服务, 但是如果/etc/mail/mailer.conf文件(见下文) 没有被改变, sendmail将仍然可以发送邮件 .

20.4.2.2. FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE版本2002/4/4之后和以后的版本 (包括4.6-RELEASE版本和以后的)

为了完全的停用 sendmail 你必须使用

sendmail_enable="NONE"

编辑/etc/rc.conf文件.

Warning如果用这个方法停用sendmail发送邮件服务, 选用一个完全能替代这个邮件发送系统的软件是件很重要的事 . 如果你没有选择这样做, 系统功能比如象periodic(8) 将不能传送. 你系统的许多parts可能期望有一个 sendmail-兼容系统. 如果程序继续使用 sendmail的二进制文件尝试传送邮件,请先停用它们 , 邮件会进入一个不活跃的 sendmail队列, 并且永不发送.

如果只是想要停止 sendmail的接收邮件服务, 你应该在/etc/rc.conf文件做如下设置.

sendmail_enable="NO"

更多的有关 sendmail 可用的启动选项参看 rc.sendmail(8)联机手册.

20.4.3. 机器引导时运行你的新MTA

你也许有两种方法在机器引导时运行你的新 MTA, 这个也倚赖你所运行的FreeBSD 版本.

20.4.3.1. FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE版本2002/4/11以前 (包括4.5-RELEASE版本和更早)

添加一个以.sh为后缀的脚本文件在 /usr/local/etc/rc.d/ 用root身份运行. 这个脚本应该接受start 和 stop 参数. 用如下命令启动这个脚本

/usr/local/etc/rc.d/supermailer.sh start

你也可以手工启动这个服务. 如果想要停止它 系统脚本将使用 stop选项, 运行如下命令

/usr/local/etc/rc.d/supermailer.sh stop

你也可以手工停止正在系统运行的服务 .

20.4.3.2. FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE版本2002/4/11以后 (包括4.6-RELEASE版本和以后)

在FreeBSD较后来的版本, 你可以使用上面的方法或者你可以

在/etc/rc.conf文件做如下设置

mta_start_script="filename"

filename是你想要在引导时执行的MTA脚本文件的名字.

20.4.4. 替换系统默认的邮寄程序sendmail

因为sendmail程序是一个在 UNIX系统下普遍存在的一个标准的软件, 一些软件就假定它已经被安装并且配置好. 基于这个原因, 许多其它的MTA提供者都提供了兼容 sendmail的命令行界面来执行 ; 这使它们象``混入''sendmail一样变的很容易掌握.

因此,如果你使用其它的邮寄程序, 你必须确定这个软件是去尝试运行标准的 sendmail二进制,就象 /usr/bin/sendmail,还是运行你自己选择的替换邮寄程序 . 幸运的是, FreeBSD提供了一个系统调用 mailwrapper(8) 它能为你做这件工作.

当sendmail安装后被运行, 你可以在 /etc/mail/mailer.conf中找到如下行:

sendmail    /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
send-mail   /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
mailq       /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
newaliases  /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
hoststat    /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
purgestat   /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail

这个的意思就是当这些公共命令 (例如sendmail它本身)运行时, 系统实际上调用了一个sendmail指定的mailwrapper的副本, 它检查mailer.conf并且 运行/usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail做为替代 . 当默认的sendmail功能被调用,系统将很容易的改变实际上运行的二进制文件.

因此如果你想要 /usr/local/supermailer/bin/sendmail-compat 替换sendmail被运行, 你应该改变 /etc/mail/mailer.conf文件,如下:

sendmail    /usr/local/supermailer/bin/sendmail-compat
send-mail   /usr/local/supermailer/bin/sendmail-compat
mailq       /usr/local/supermailer/bin/mailq-compat
newaliases  /usr/local/supermailer/bin/newaliases-compat
hoststat    /usr/local/supermailer/bin/hoststat-compat
purgestat   /usr/local/supermailer/bin/purgestat-compat

20.4.5. 最后

一旦做完你想要配置的每件事, 你应该杀掉 sendmail进程并且启动属于你的新软件的进程 , 或者简单的重启. 重启也将给你机会保证你正确的配置你的系统,在引导的时候自动的运行你新的MTA.

20.5. 疑难解答

20.5.1. 为什么必须在我的站点的主机上使用FQDN?
20.5.2. sendmail 提示信息``mail loops back to myself''
20.5.3. 我如何在一个拨号主机上运行一个邮件服务?
20.5.4. 为什么当我发送邮件到其它主机总是有``Relaying Denied''出错信息?

20.5.1. 为什么必须在我的站点的主机上使用FQDN?

你可能会发现主机实际上是在另外一个域里面 ; 例如,如果你是在 foo.bar.edu里,而你要找一台叫 mumble的主机,它在bar.edu域里, 你就必须用完整的域名mumble.bar.edu, 而不是用mumble.

传统上,这在BSD BIND resolvers中是可行的. 然而目前随FreeBSD附带的 BIND 已不为同一域外提供缩写服务 . 所以,这个不完整的主机名mumble必须以 mumble.foo.bar.edu这种形式才能被找到, 或者将在根域中搜索它.

这跟以前的处理是不同的, 以前版本将会继续寻找 mumble.bar.edu, 和mumble.edu. 如果你想要了解这种方式是否是好,或者它有什么安全方面的漏洞,请参阅RFC 1535文档.

如果你想要一个好的工作环境, 你可以使用如下行:

search foo.bar.edu bar.edu
替换先前旧的版本: 
domain foo.bar.edu
把这行放在你的/etc/resolv.conf文件中. 然而,请一定要确定这样的搜寻顺序不会造成RFC 1535里提到的``boundary between local and public administration'', 问题.

20.5.2. sendmail 提示信息``mail loops back to myself''

下面是 sendmail FAQ中的回答:

我得到了一个如下的信息``Local configuration error'':

553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself
554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error

我如何解决这个问题?

你已经通过使用一个MX记录把邮件发送给了将被转寄的特定主机(在这个例子里是, relay.domain.net)的域 (例如, domain.net),而这个转寄的机器不认为它自己是domain.net.请把domain.net添加到/etc/mail/local-host-names文件
(如果你使用(use_cw_file)的话) 或者添加``Cw domain.net''
到/etc/mail/sendmail.cf.

sendmail FAQ可以在 http://www.sendmail.org/faq/被找到,如果你想要对你的邮件做任何的``设定''我推荐你阅读它.

20.5.3. 我如何在一个拨号主机上运行一个邮件服务?

你想要把局域网上的FreeBSD主机连接到互连网上,而这台 FreeBSD主机将会成为这个局域网的邮件网关,这个拨号连接不必一直保持在联接状态.

最少有两种方法可以满足你的要求. 一种方法就是使用UUCP.

另一种方法是找到一个专职的服务器来为你的域提供副MX主机服务 . 例如, 如果你公司的域名是 example.com你的互连网服务提供者把 example.net作为你域的副MX服务 :

example.com.          MX        10      example.com.
                      MX        20      example.net.

只有一台主机被指定当做你的最终收信主机 (在example.com主机的/etc/mail/sendmail.cf文件中添加Cw example.com ).

当sendmail试图分发邮件的时候,它会尝试通过modem连接到你(example.com). 因为你并不在线,所以总是会得到一个超时的错误. sendmail将会把邮件发送到副 MX主机, 也就是说. 你的互连网服务提供者(example.net). 副MX主机将周期性的尝试连接并发送邮件到你的主机(example.com).

你也许想要使用下面的这个登陆脚本:

#!/bin/sh
# Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppmyisp
( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppmyisp

如果你想要为一个用户建立一个分开登陆的脚本, 你可以使用sendmail -qRexample.com 替换上面的脚本. 这样将使所有的邮件按照你的example.com队列立即被处理.

更深入的方法可以参考下面这段:

这段信息是从FreeBSD Internet service provider's 邮件列表拿来的.

> 我们为用户提供副MX主机服务. 用户每天都会上线好几次
> 并且自动把信件取回主MX主机
> (当有他们的邮件时我们并没有通知他们
> ). 我们的mailqueue程序每30分钟清一次邮件队列.那段时间他们
> 就必须上线30分钟以确保他们的信件送达他们的主MX主机.
>
>
> 有任何指令可以用sendmail寄出所有邮件么?
> 普通用户在我们的机器上当然没有root权限.

在sendmail.cf的``privacy flags''部分, 有这样的设定
Opgoaway,restrictqrun

移除restrictqrun可以让非root用户启动队列处理的程序.
你可能也要重新安排你的MX设定. 我们是用户的MX主机
,而且我们还设定了这个:

# If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error.
OwTrue

这样的话远程机器会直接把信送给你,而不会尝试连接你的用户的机器
.  然后你就可以把邮件发送到你的用户.  这个设定只对
``主机''有效,所以你必须要让你的用户在DNS中把他们的邮件主机设置为
``customer.com''或者
``hostname.customer.com''.  只要为``customer.com''在DNS里添加一个A记录就可以了.

20.5.4. 为什么当我发送邮件到其它主机总是有``Relaying Denied''出错信息?

在默认的FreeBSD安装, sendmail的配置只是从主机传送邮件 . 例如, 如果一个POP3服务被安装,那么用户将可以学校,公司,或者其它什么地方检查邮件,但是他们不能从外部发送邮件 . 典型的, 做这些尝试之后,邮件从 MAILER-DAEMON传送一个 ``5.7 Relaying Denied''错误信息.

这里有几个方法避免这个. 最直截了当的解决方法是在 relay-domains文件 /etc/mail/relay-domains放入你的IP地址. 一个快捷的方法如下:

# echo "your.isp.example.com" > /etc/mail/relay-domains

建立或编辑这个文件以后你必须重新启动 sendmail. 如果你是一个管理员并且不希望在本地发送邮件,或者想要在其它的机器甚至其它的ISP上使用一个客户端系统,这个方法是很方便的. 如果你仅有一到两个邮件帐户它也非常的有用 . 如果有大量的地址需要添加 , 你可以很简单的使用你喜欢的文本编辑器打开这个文件添加域名,每行一个:

your.isp.example.com
other.isp.example.net
users-isp.example.org
www.example.org

现在邮件可以通过你的系统传送, 这个列表中存在的主机(前提是用户在你的系统上已经有一个帐户)将可以成功的发送. 这是一个允许正常的远程用户从你的系统发送邮件并且阻止其它非法用户通过你系统发送垃圾邮件的好方法.

20.6. 高级主题

下面这节将介绍邮件配置和为整个域安装邮件.

20.6.1. 基本配置

在邮箱外, 只要你设置/etc/resolv.conf或者运行你自己的名字服务器,你就可以发送邮件到外部的主机. 如果你想要你的邮件发送给某个特定的MTA(例如, sendmail) 在你的FreeBSD主机上,有两个方法 :

  • 运行你自己的域名服务器和你自己的域. 例如 , FreeBSD.org

  • 获得直接分发给你主机的邮件. 你可以直接使用你当前的 DNS名称. 例如, example.FreeBSD.org.

不管你选择上面那种方法, 为了直接在你的主机上发送邮件 , 必须有一个静态的IP地址(不是象PPP拨号一样的动态地址).如果你在防火墙后面 , 它必须让SMTP协议通过. 如果你想要在你的主机上直接的收取邮件 , 你必须确定两件事:

  • 确定在你DNS中的MX记录(最小编号的)指向你的IP地址 .

  • 确定在你DNS中的MX记录没有禁止你的主机.

上面的每条记录都允许你在你的主机直接接收邮件.

试试这个:

# hostname example.FreeBSD.org # host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX

如果你看到这些, 直接使用 应该没有问题 (假定sendmail已经 正确的运行在example.FreeBSD.org).

如果你看到这些:

# host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org

所有发送到主机(example.FreeBSD.org)的邮件在相同的用户名下将会被 hub终止的收集,而不是直接发送到你的主机.

上面的信息是通过你的DNS服务器来处理的. 支持邮件路由信息的DNS记录是 邮件 交换记录. 如果 MX记录不存在, 邮件将通过它自己的IP地址被直接的发送到主机.

freefall.FreeBSD.org的MX记录如下所示:

freefall       MX  30  mail.crl.net
freefall        MX  40  agora.rdrop.com
freefall        MX  10  freefall.FreeBSD.org
freefall        MX  20  who.cdrom.com

正如你说看到的, freefall 有很多MX记录. 最小编号的MX记录是直接接收邮件的主机; 如果因为一些原因它不可用, 其它 (有时会访问``backup MXes'')接收信息将会暂时接替并做临时的排列 .

为了有效的使用交换式MX站点,应当从你的机器上分离一些Internet连接. 你的ISP或者其它友好的站点可以没有任何问题的为你提供这个服务.

20.6.2. Mail for Your Domain

为了设置一个``邮件主机'' (又称邮件服务器)你必须要把许多邮件发送到与它相连的几个工作站中.基本上, 你想要``要求''在你域的每个主机的所有邮件(在这个例子里是*.FreeBSD.org)转向到你的邮件服务器,从而使你的用户可以在主邮件服务器里接收他们的邮件.

要使工作最简单, 带有同样 用户名的帐户应该同时存在于两台机器上. 使用 adduser(8) 来这样做.

你将使用的邮件主机必须为每个工作站指定一个邮件交换. 你可以在 DNS中这样配置:

example.FreeBSD.org    A   204.216.27.XX       ; Workstation
            MX  10 hub.FreeBSD.org  ; Mailhost

无论A记录指向哪,这将为工作站重新定位到邮件主机. 邮件将被发送到MX 主机.

你不能自己这样做除非你运行着一个DNS服务器. 如果不是这样, 或者不能运行你自己的DNS服务器, 告诉你的ISP或者给你提供DNS服务的人.

如果你正在使用虚拟邮件主机, 下面的信息将会对你有用 . 在这个例子, 我们假定你有一个客户并且他有自己的域 , 这个例子中是customer1.org, 你要把 customer1.org所有的邮件发送到你的邮件主机 mail.myhost.com. 你的DNS记录应该是这样 :

customer1.org      MX  10  mail.myhost.com

你不需要你个A记录,如果你只为域customer1.org处理邮件.

Note: 必须清楚customer1.org将不能工作,除非 一个A记录存在.

最后一件你必须要做的事是告诉 sendmail接受邮件的是什么域和(或)主机名 . 这里有好几种方法. 下面方法可以任选一种:

  • 添加你的主机到 /etc/mail/local-host-names文件中,如果你使用的是 FEATURE(use_cw_file). 如果你使用 sendmail8.10或者更高版本, 文件是 /etc/sendmail.cw.

  • 添加一行Cwyour.host.com到你的 /etc/sendmail.cf 或 /etc/mail/sendmail.cf文件,如果你使用 sendmail 8.10或者更高版本.

20.7. SMTP 与 UUCP

sendmail的配置,在FreeBSD中已经配置好为你的站点直接的连接Internet. 如果站点希望他们的邮件通过UUCP交换,则必须安装其它的sendmail配置文件.

手工的配置/etc/mail/sendmail.cf是一个高级主题 . sendmail8版本通过m4(1) 预处理生成一个配置文件, 实际上这个配置发生在一个比较高的抽象层. m4(1) 配置文件可以在 /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf下被找到.

如果你没有在系统上安装全部源码, 则可以从单独的压缩文件中提取sendmail配置文件。假定你的FreeBSD源码CDROM已经被mount:

# cd /cdrom/src # cat scontrib.?? | tar xzf - -C /usr/src/contrib/sendmail

这个提取只有几百K字节. cf目录中的README文件能够为你提供一个到m4(1)配置的基本的介绍.

最好的支持UUCP传送的方法是使用 mailertable的特点. 建立一个资料库让 sendmail可以使用它自己的路由决策.

首先, 你必须建立你自己的.mc文件. /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf目录包含一些例子 . 假定你已经命名自己的文件叫做 foo.mc, 你要做的只是把它转换成一个有效的 sendmail.cf:

# cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf
# make foo.cf # cp foo.cf /etc/mail/sendmail.cf

一个典型的.mc文件看起来可能象这样:

VERSIONID(`Your version number') OSTYPE(bsd4.4)

FEATURE(accept_unresolvable_domains)
FEATURE(nocanonify)
FEATURE(mailertable, `hash -o /etc/mail/mailertable')

define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay)
define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000)
define(`confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES')

MAILER(local)
MAILER(smtp)
MAILER(uucp)

Cw    your.alias.host.name
Cw    youruucpnodename.UUCP

accept_unresolvable_domains, nocanonify, 和 confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES特性将避免在传送邮件时使用DNS的机会. The UUCP_RELAY项是支持UUCP传送所必须的. 简单的放入一个Internet上可以处理UUCP虚拟域地址的主机名; 通常, 你在这里填入你 ISP邮件的回复处.

一旦你做完这些,你还需要这个 /etc/mail/mailertable 文件. 如果你只有一个用来传递所有邮件的对外通道的话,以下的文件就足够了:

#
# makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable
.                             uucp-dom:your.uucp.relay

一个更复杂点的例子象这样:

#
# makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable #
horus.interface-business.de   uucp-dom:horus
.interface-business.de        uucp-dom:if-bus
interface-business.de         uucp-dom:if-bus
.heep.sax.de                  smtp8:%1
horus.UUCP                    uucp-dom:horus
if-bus.UUCP                   uucp-dom:if-bus
.                             uucp-dom:

头三行处理域地址邮件,不应该被传送出默认的路由 , 而由某些UUCP邻居取代的特殊情况,这是为了走 ``捷径'' . 下一行处理本地网的邮件让它可以使用 SMTP来传送. 最后, UUCP邻居提起.UUCP虚拟域的记载 , 允许一个uucp-neighbor !recipient 推翻默认规则. 最后一行则以一个单独的句点最为结束 , 以UUCP传送到提供你所有的邮件网关的UUCP邻居 . 所有在 uucp-dom:关键字里的节点名称必须是有效的UUCP邻居,你可以用uuname去确认.

提醒你这个文件在使用前必须被转换成DBM数据库文件. 最好在mailertable最上面用注解写出命令行来完成这个工作.当你每次更换你的mailertable后你总是需要执行这个命令.

最后提示: 如果你不确定某个特定的路径可用 , 记得把-bt 选项加到sendmail. 这会将sendmail启动在地址检测模式; 只要按下3,0, 接着输入你希望测试的邮件路径位置. 最后一行告诉你使用邮件代理程序,代理程序会通知目的主机以及(可能转换)地址. 要离开此模式请按Ctrl+D.

% sendmail -bt ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked) Enter <ruleset> <address> > 3,0 foo@example.com
canonify           input: foo @ example . com
...
parse            returns: $# uucp-dom $@ your.uucp.relay $: foo < @ example . com . >
> ^D

20.8. 拨号连接时使用邮件传送

如果你有一个静态的IP地址, 你不需要调整任何默认值 . 设置好你的在网络上分配给你的主机名，其它的 sendmail都会帮你做完.

如果分配给你的是动态的IP并且使用 PPP拨号连接到Internet, 你可能已经在你的 ISP邮件主机上有一个邮箱. 假定你ISP的域名是 example.net, 你的用户名称是 user, 亦假设你自己的主机名称是 bsd.home, 而你的ISP告诉你可以使用 relay.example.net当做邮箱回复处.

为了从你的邮箱接收邮件, 你需要安装代理程序以便从信箱取回邮件 . fetchmail是一个不错的选择,因为它支持许多不同的协议. 这个程序可以从package或通过ports collection((mail/fetchmail)得到。如果你使用user PPP，通常你的ISP会提供POP3服务， 你可以在连线到Internet成功后自动取回你的信件,只要在 /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup里设置如下这项:

MYADDR:
!bg su user -c fetchmail

如果你正使用sendmail (如下所示 ) 传送邮件到非本地帐户, 这会强迫 sendmail在连接网络后马上处理邮件进程队列,它在/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup文件执行fetchmail命令.

  !bg su user -c "sendmail -q"

假设你有一个 user帐户,在bsd.home机器上. 在bsd.home机器上的user目录里建立一个 .fetchmailrc文件:

poll example.net protocol pop3 fetchall pass MySecret

这个文件除了user外不应该被任何人读取,因为它包含了 MySecret这个密码.

为了在发信时有正确的抬头 from:, 你必须告诉 sendmail 使用 user@example.net 而非 user@bsd.home. 你可能会希望告诉 sendmail 从 relay.example.net发送所有邮件, 加快邮件的传送 .

以下的.mc文件应该可以满足你的需求:

VERSIONID(`bsd.home.mc version 1.0') OSTYPE(bsd4.4)dnl FEATURE(nouucp)dnl MAILER(local)dnl MAILER(smtp)dnl Cwlocalhost Cwbsd.home MASQUERADE_AS(`example.net')dnl FEATURE(allmasquerade)dnl FEATURE(masquerade_envelope)dnl FEATURE(nocanonify)dnl FEATURE(nodns)dnl define(`SMART_HOST', `relay.example.net') Dmbsd.home define(`confDOMAIN_NAME',`bsd.home')dnl
define(`confDELIVERY_MODE',`deferred')dnl

如何转换这个.mc文件到 sendmail.cf 文件的细节,请参考前面的章节. 另外,在更新 sendmail.cf文件后,不要忘记重启sendmail.

20.9. SMTP 验证

在你的邮件服务器上拥有SMTP验证,会有一些好处 . SMTP验证可以让sendmail多一层安全防护,并且对移动用户来说很有好处.它可以控制用户使用相同的邮件服务器而不必重新配置他们的邮件客户端.

  1. 安装security/cyrus-sasl . 你可以在 security/cyrus-sasl找到它. security/cyrus-sasl 有一些编译时间选项可以选择, 我们将在这里使用它, 确定你选择了 pwcheck 选项.

  2. 安装完security/cyrus-sasl以后, 编辑/usr/local/lib/sasl/Sendmail.conf文件 (如果它不存在就建立它)并且添加如下行:

    pwcheck_method: passwd

    这个方法将允许sendmail 依照你的FreeBSD passwd数据库进行验证 . 这将为每个用户建立一个新用户名设置和口令使用 SMTP验证减少麻烦, 并且保证登陆和邮件口令是相同的 .

  3. 现在编辑/etc/make.conf文件,添加如下行 :

    SENDMAIL_CFLAGS=-I/usr/local/include/sasl1 -DSASL SENDMAIL_LDFLAGS=-L/usr/local/lib SENDMAIL_LDADD=-lsasl

    这些行将给sendmail合适的配置选项,为在编译时间链接到cyrus-sasl. 确定cyrus-sasl 被安装之前重新编译 sendmail.

  4. 重新编译sendmail运行如下命令:

    # cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail
# make cleandir # make obj # make # make install

    如果/usr/src和共享库没有大的变化并且它们都必须可用.sendmail编译应该没有任何问题.

  5. sendmail被重新编译和安装后 , 编辑你的/etc/mail/freebsd.mc 文件 (或者无论你选择使用的你的哪个.mc文件.许多管理员选择使用跟hostname(1)一样的唯一的.mc文件输出 ). 添加这些行在这个文件:

    dnl set SASL options
TRUST_AUTH_MECH(`GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl define(`confAUTH_MECHANISMS', `GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl define(`confDEF_AUTH_INFO', `/etc/mail/auth-info')dnl

    这些选项配置有不同的方法,对于 sendmail验证用户. 如果你想要使用除 pwcheck之外的方法, 请参考相关文档 .

  6. 最后, 在/etc/mail运行make(1). 它将建立你的新.mc 文件和建立一个.cf文件命名为freebsd.cf (或者你想使用你的其它名字的 .mc文件). 接着使用命令 make install restart, 这将复制文件到 sendmail.cf,并且正确的重新启动 sendmail. 更多有关这个过程的信息,你可以参考/etc/mail/Makefile文件.

如果所每个步骤都做对了, 你应该可以通过你的邮件客户端进入你的登陆信息并且传送一个测试信息. 更多的分析, 设置sendmail的LogLevel到13并且查看/var/log/maillog中的信息.

你也许希望添加如下行到/etc/rc.conf文件, 这将允许服务在重起之后自动运行:

sasl_pwcheck_enable="YES"
sasl_pwcheck_program="/usr/local/sbin/pwcheck"

这将保证SMTP_AUTH初始化在系统启动时自动运行 .

更多的信息, 请参看sendmail 相关页 SMTP 验证.

Chapter 21. 最前沿

重新组织和部分更新，由Jim Mock. 原创：Jordan Hubbard, Poul-Henning Kamp, John Polstra, and Nik Clayton. 中文翻译：张 雪平.

21.1. 概述

FreeBSD 在两个发行版之间都有着持续的发展。对于喜欢冒险的人来说，有几种机制让你的系统与最新的发展保持同步。警告--冒险并不适合每一个人！本章将有助于你决定是紧跟最新发展还是坚持发行版。

读了本章后，你将了解到：

  • FreeBSD-STABLE 和 FreeBSD-CURRENT两个发展分支的不同点。

  • 怎样使用CVSup， CVS或 CTM保持你的系统更新。

  • 怎样使用make world重建和重新安装整个基本系统。

在读本章这前，你应该了解的：

  • 正确设置网络连接 (Chapter 19)。

  • 知道怎样安装附加的第三方软件(Chapter 4)。

21.2. FreeBSD-CURRENT 对 FreeBSD-STABLE

FreeBSD有两个发展分支：FreeBSD-CURRENT 和 FreeBSD-STABLE。 这部分将对每个做些说明，并且讲述你的系统如何与各自的树一同保持最新。先讨论FreeBSD-CURRENT ，然后是FreeBSD-STABLE.

21.2.1. 与FreeBSD保持当前(Current)

在你读此的时候，脑中一定要记得：FreeBSD-CURRENT 是FreeBSD发展的``尖端(bleeding edge)''。FreeBSD-CURRENT用户要有较高的技术能力，并且应该有能力自已解决困难的系统问题。如果你是个FreeBSD新手，那么在安装之前最好三思。

21.2.1.1. FreeBSD-CURRENT是什么？

FreeBSD-CURRENT 是FreeBSD 的发展前沿。包括了在下一个官方发行的软件中可能存在，也可能不存在的发展、实验性变化、传统机制。由于许多FreeBSD开发者每天编译FreeBSD-CURRENT源代码，有时这些代码会是不能编译的。虽然这些问题会很快解决，但不管是FreeBSD-CURRENT引起的破坏还是急切的泛涵性(greatly desired functionality)都将是在你获取源代码的的时候值得注意的！

21.2.1.2. 谁需要FreeBSD-CURRENT？

FreeBSD-CURRENT 适合下边三种主要兴趣团体：

  1. FreeBSD团体的成员：积极工作在源码树的某部分的人和为保持``current''为绝对需求(absolute requirement)的人。

  2. FreeBSD团体的成员：为促使FreeBSD-CURRENT保持尽可能的健全而愿花时间去解决问题的积极的测试员；以及那些愿意提出关于FreeBSD变化和总体方向的建设性建议并且提供补丁实现它们的人们。

  3. 那些只是想关注或为了参考目的使用当前(current)源码的人们（如，为了阅读，而不是执行）。这些人也偶尔做做注释或贡献代码。

21.2.1.3. FreeBSD-CURRENT 不是什么？

  1. 因为你听说里边有些新而酷(cool)的功能，而且你想在首先在你的天地(block)里拥有它，所以紧紧跟随、不放过预先发行的每一个字节。由于是系统中第一个使用新功能的人，也就意味着在系统里产生新问题的你是第一个。

  2. 修复错漏的快捷方式。任何FreeBSD-CURRENT的既定版本在修复已知错漏的同时又可能会产生新的错漏。

  3. 无所不在的``官方支持''。我们尽最大努力在3个``合法的'' FreeBSD-CURRENT组之一真诚给人们提供帮助，但是我们没有时间提供技术支持。这并不是因为我们是那种不喜欢帮助人解困的无耻之徒（如果我们是的话，就不会制作FreeBSD了）。我们不能每天简单地回复上百的消息，而且我们继续发展FreeBSD！ 在改善FreeBSD和回复大量关于实验代码的问题之间如果要做个选择的话，开发人员会选择前者。

21.2.1.4. 使用FreeBSD-CURRENT

  1. 加入freebsd-current 和cvs-all 列表。这个不仅仅是个好主意，而且很重要。如果你不去freebsd-current，你就不会看到人们所做的关于系统当前状态的说明，这样你就有可能在别人已经发现并解决了的一大堆问题面前难倒。更重要的是你会错过一些重要的公告---对于你的系统安全可能是至关重要的。

    cvs-all列表允许你看到每个变化的提交记录，因为这些记录与其它相关信息是同步的。

    要加入这些列表，或其它可能的列表，请访问http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo ，并且点击你想订阅的列项。关于其它步骤的说明那里有提供。

  2. 从FreeBSD 镜像站点获取源码。你有两种方式选择：

    1. 与称作standard-supfile的supfile一起使用cvsup，这个可以从/usr/share/examples/cvsup得到。这是最被推荐的方式，因为它允许你一次获取整个集合，以后就只取更改过的部分。许多人从cron运行cvsup，以保持他们的源码自动更新。你须要定制上边的supfile样本，并且配置cvsup以适应你的环境。

    2. 使用工具CTM。如果你的连接性能不太好（高价连接或只能通过电子邮件存取），CTM 是个选择。但这也颇有争议并且常常得到到坏文件。因此很少使用它，这也注定了不能长期用它来工作。对于使用9600 bps或更快连接的人，我们推荐使用CVSup。

  3. 如果你获取源码是用于运行，而不只是看看，那么就获取整个FreeBSD-CURRENT，不要选部分。这样做的原因是源码的大部分都依赖于其他部分，要是你试着只编译其中一部分的话，保证你会陷入麻烦。

    在编译FreeBSD-CURRENT之前，请仔细阅读/usr/src里的Makefile文件。尽管是部分的升级过程，你至少也要首先安装新的内核和重建系统。阅读FreeBSD-CURRENT 邮件列表邮件列表和/usr/src/UPDATING，会让你在其它循序渐进的过程中保持最新，这对于我们向下一个发行版转移是很有必要的。

  4. 热心一点！ 如果你正运行FreeBSD-CURRENT，我们很想知道你关于它的一些想法，尤其是关于错漏修复或增进的建议。非常欢迎带有代码的建议！

21.2.2. 保持FreeBSD的稳定

21.2.2.1. FreeBSD-STABLE是什么?

FreeBSD-STABLE是我们的发展分支，我们的主要发行版就由此而来。这个分支会以不同速度变化，并且假定这些是第一次进入FreeBSD-CURRENT进行测试。然而，这仍然是个发展中的分支，这意味着在一定的时候，FreeBSD-STABLE源码可能或不可能满足一些特殊的要求。它只不过是另一个工程发展途径，并不是终端用户的资源。

21.2.2.2. 谁需要FreeBSD-STABLE？

如果你对跟踪FreeBSD的发展或想做点贡献感兴趣的话，尤其是与下一个FreeBSD的``目标(point)''发行版相关的，那么你就应该考虑跟从FreeBSD-STABLE了。/para>

同时在FreeBSD-STABLE的分支中也有安全修复，你不必跟踪FreeBSD-STABLE去做这些。对FreeBSD的每一个安全建议说明了如何修复因发行而引起的问题 [13]，只是为了安全原因而跟踪整个发展分支，有可能引起其它意相不到的变化。

尽管我们尽力确保FreeBSD-STABLE在什么时候能编译和运行，但这是不可保证的。另外，虽然在包括进FreeBSD-STABLE之前，这些代码是在FreeBSD-CURRENT中开发过的，更多的人使用FreeBSD-STABLE也胜过FreeBSD-CURRENT，但在FreeBSD-STABLE中找到些错漏和死角问题也是不可避免的，有时在FreeBSD-STABLE中发现问题并不象在FreeBSD-CURRENT里那么明显。

正因为这些原因，我们并不推荐你们盲目跟随FreeBSD-STABLE；并且没有完全地在你的环境里测试你的代码就不要把你的工作服务器升级到FreeBSD-STABLE，这点也很重要。

如果你还没有能力去这样做，那么我们推荐你运行最新发行的FreeBSD，并且使用二进制更新机制(binary update mechanism )进行版本转移。

21.2.2.3. 使用FreeBSD-STABLE

  1. 加入freebsd-stable 列表。让你随时了解可能出现在FreeBSD-STABLE里的“build依赖性”或其它需要特别注意的问题。当开发员正在考虑某些有争议的修复或更新时，他们就会在这个邮件列表里发表声明，给用户机会回应，看他们对于提出的变化是否还有什么问题。

    cvs-all列表允许你看到每一个变化的提交记录条目，这些变化是随着由可能的副作用引起的任何相关信息而产生的。

    要加入这些列表或其他可用的，访问http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo 并点击你希望订阅的列表。关于其它步骤的说明可以在那里看到。

  2. 如果安装一个新的系统又想它尽可能稳定的话，你可以仅仅从ftp://snapshots.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/snapshots/获取最新的分支快照并象其它发行版一样安装它。或者你可以从镜像站点安装最新的FreeBSD-STABLE 发行版，并按照下边的说明升级你的系统到最新的FreeBSD-STABLE源码。

    如果你已经在运行以前的FreeBSD发行版，并希望通过源码方式升级，那么你可能轻易的从FreeBSD 镜像站点完成。有两种方式：

    1. 与称作standard-supfile的supfile一起使用cvsup，这个可以从/usr/share/examples/cvsup得到。这是最被推荐的方式，因为它允许你一次获取整个集合，以后就只取更改过的部分。许多人从cron运行cvsup，以保持他们的源码自动更新。你须要定制上边的supfile样本，并且配置cvsup以适应你的环境。

    2. 使用工具CTM。如果你的连接性能不太好（高价连接或只能通过电子邮件存取），CTM 是个选择。但这也颇有争议并且常常得到到坏文件。因此很少使用它，这也注定了不能长期用它来工作。对于使用9600 bps或更快连接的人，我们推荐使用CVSup。

  3. 本质上说，如果你需要快速存取源码并且不计较通信宽带的话，可以使用cvsup或ftp。否则，就使用CTM。

  4. 在编译FreeBSD-STABLE之前，请仔细阅读/usr/src里的Makefile。你至少应该安装一个新的内核并重建系统，首先做为升级过程的一部分。阅读FreeBSD-STABLE 邮件列表邮件列表和/usr/src/UPDATING，可能让你在其它循序渐进的过程中保持更新，这在我们向下一发行版转移时是很有必要的。

21.3. 同步你的源码

有许多方式通过互联网（或电子邮件）与FreeBSD项目源码特定领域或所有领域保持更新，主要依赖于你的兴趣。我们提供的主要服务是匿名CVS，CVSup，和CTM。

Warning虽然只更新源码树中的部分是可能的，唯一被支持的更新过程是更新整个树、并且重编译用户区（如：在用户空间运行的所有程序，像/bin 和 /sbin下边的）和内核源码。只更新源码树中的部分，或只有内核，或只有用户区(userland)通常会出现错误。这些问题包括有编译错误、内核崩溃(kernel panics)、数据出错。

Anonymous CVS和CVSup使用下拉(pull)模式更新源码。在CVSup方式下，用户(或cron脚本) 调用cvsup程序，并且与某个地方的cvsupd服务器交互一起更新你的文件。你收到的更新文件是更新到秒的，并且在你得到他们时，也只有那时你会需要它们。你可以轻易的限定你的更新到你感兴趣的指定文件或目录。服务器会根据你所有的和你想要的更新在空闲时生成。Anonymous CVS相比CVSup要简单一点，CVSup只是CVS（让你可以直接从远端的CVS仓库里下拉更改）的扩展。CVSup 完成得更有效率，但Anonymous CVS 更易使用。

CTM，在另一方面，不能交互的把你有的源码与主压缩包里的进行比较，也不能把它们拉下来。实际上，在主CTM机器里，可以用来识别文件里自上次运行以来发生的变化的脚本，每天要执行好几次，任何侦测到的变化都会被压缩、标识上序列号并进行编码以利于能过电子邮件传输（只能是可打印的ASCII）。一旦接收到，这些``CTM deltas''就会被传送给ctm_rmail(1)工具---可以自动进行解码、校验和应用这些变化到用户的复制的源码里。这个过程比CVSup更为有效，而且更少占用我们的服务器资源，因为它不仅仅采用下拉(pull)模式，还采用上推(push)模式。

当然，There are other trade-offs, of course. 如果你不经意删除了你的压缩包的部分内容，CVSup会检测到并为你重建破坏的部分。CTM 是不会这样做的，如果你删除了你的源码树中的某部分（并已不能恢复），那么你就必须从破坏处（从最新的CVS ``base delta''）开始，使用CTM或Anonymous CVS进行重建，仅仅删除坏的数据并再同步。

21.4. 使用make world

只要你根据一定版本的FreeBSD (FreeBSD-STABLE, FreeBSD-CURRENT, 等等)，已经同步了你本地的源码树，那么你就可以使用这些源码树来重建系统。

做好备份不用强调在你做此（重建系统）之前备份一下系统是多么地重要。尽管重建系统是很容易做的（只要你跟从这些指导），但有时出现错误也是在所难免的，有时其他人在源码里犯的错也会致使你的系统不能启动。

确信你已做了备份。还要有张修复软盘。你可能从不用它，但安全第一嘛！

订阅恰当的邮件列表FreeBSD-STABLE 和 FreeBSD-CURRENT 分支自然是发展中的。为FreeBSD做贡献的都是人，偶尔也会犯错误。

有时这些错误没什么危害，只是引起你的系统生成新的诊断警告。有时是灾难性的，并导致你的系统不能惊动启动或破坏你的文件系统（甚至更糟）。

如果出现了类似的问题，贴一封``小心(heads up)''帖到相关的邮件列表里，讲清问题的本质以及受影响的系统。在问题解决后，再贴封``解除(all clear)'' 声明。

如可你想跟踪FreeBSD-STABLE 或 FreeBSD-CURRENT而又不阅读FreeBSD-STABLE 邮件列表和FreeBSD-CURRENT 邮件列表各自的邮件列表，那么你是自找麻烦。

21.4.1. 更新系统的规范途径

要更新系统，就要使用下面的过程：

# make buildworld
# make buildkernel
# make installkernel
# reboot

你应该启动到单用户模式下（例如从启动提示符处使用boot -s）。然后执行：

# mergemaster -p
# make installworld
# mergemaster
# reboot

阅读进一步的说明上边描述的序列只是有助于你开始工作的简要。要清楚的理解每一不步，尤其是你想使用定制内核配置，你就应阅读下面的部分。

21.4.2. 阅读 /usr/src/UPDATING

在你做其它事之前，请阅读/usr/src/UPDATING (或在你的源码里的等效的文件)。这个文件要包含有关于你可能遇到的问题的重要信息，或指定了你可能使用到的命令的执行顺序。如果UPDATING 与你这里读到相矛盾，那就先依据UPDATING。

Important: 正如先前所述，阅读UPDATING并不能替代订阅正确的邮件列表。两都是互补的，并不彼此排斥。

21.4.3. 检查 /etc/make.conf

检查/etc/defaults/make.conf 和/etc/make.conf两个文件。前者包含了一些默认的定义--许多都有注释。在你从源码重建系统里要利用它们，把它们增加到/etc/make.conf里边。脑中一定要记得，你加到/etc/make.conf里的东西也是你每次执行make所要用到的，因把设置它们能识别你的系统是个不错的主意。

一般的用户可能会把在/etc/defaults/make.conf里找到的CFLAGS和NOPROFILE这几行复制到/etc/make.conf里，并取消注释。

看看其它的定义(像COPTFLAGS, NOPORTDOCS等等)是不是适合你使用。

21.4.4. 更新/etc里边的文件

/etc目录包含有除了你的系统启动时执行的脚本外大部分的系统配置信息。有些脚本随FreeBSD的版本而不同。

有些配置文件在天天运行的系统里也是要使用到的。尤其是/etc/group。

偶尔有这样的机会，部分``make world''的安装需要特定的用户名或用户组存在。在升级时，有可能这些用户或组就不存在。这会在升级过程中出错问题。

最近就有个这样的例子，当时smmsp用户是被增加了的。当mtree(8)试着建立/var/spool/clientmqueue时，安装过程失败了。

解决办法是检查/usr/src/etc/group并把它的组列表与你的进行比较。如果在新文件里有而你的文件里没有的，就把它们复制过来。同样地，你把/etc/group里的任何这样的组进行更名---与/usr/src/etc/group中有相同GID，但不同名的那些。

自4.6-RELEASE开始，你可以通过-p选项以预建(pre-buildworld)模式运行mergemaster(8) 。这样只是比较那些对于成功执行buildworld或installworld起关键作用的文件。在第一次时，如果早期的mergemaster版本不支持-p的话，就使用源码树中的新版本：

# cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/mergemaster
# ./mergemaster.sh -p

Tip: 如果你是个偏执狂(paranoid)，你可以检查你的系统看看哪个文件属于你已更名或删除了的那个组。

# find / -group GID -print

将显示所有GID组（可以是组名也可以是数字地组ID）所有的文件。

21.4.5. 改为单用户模式

你可能相在单用户模式下编译系统。除了对更快处理事情显然有好处外，重装系统将接触许多重要的系统文件，包括所有标准系统二进制文件、库文件、包含(include)文件等等。在运行的系统里（尤其是同时系统里有激活的用户）更改这些文件是自寻烦恼。

另一种模式是在多用户模式下编译系统，然后转换到单用户模式下安装。如果你喜欢这种方式，只需在建立(build)完成后才执行下边的步骤。你推迟转换到单用户模式下直到你必须installkernel或installworld。

从运行的系统里，以超级用户方式执行：

# shutdown now

这样就会转换到单用户模式。

另外也可以，重启系统，在启动提示符处，输入-s标识。系统就会启动单用户。再在shell提示符处执行：

# fsck -p
# mount -u /
# mount -a -t ufs
# swapon -a

这会检查文件系统，重新装载/为读/写，参考/etc/fstab装载其它所有的UFS文件系统，然后打开交换(swapping)开关。

Note: 如果你的CMOS时钟是设置为本地时间，而不是GMT（如果date(1)命令输出不能显示正确的时间和地区也有确有其事），你可能也需要执行下边的命令：

# adjkerntz -i

这样可以确定你正确的本地时区设置--不这样做，你以后可能会碰到一些问题。

21.4.6. 删除/usr/obj

在重建部分系统时，它们被（默认地）放到了/usr/obj目录下边。这些目录影射到了/usr/src下边。

删除这个目录，你可以加快``make world''的过程，并且省下许多头痛的事情。

/usr/obj下的有些文件可能设置了不可改(immutable)属性(查看chflags(1) 了解更多)，你必须先把它移除了。

# cd /usr/obj
# chflags -R noschg *
# rm -rf *

21.4.7. 重编译源码

21.4.7.1. 保存输出

建议把执行make(1)后得到的输出存成一个文件。如果什么地方出了错，你就会有个错误信息的备份。尽管这样不能帮你分析哪里出了错，但如果你把你的问题贴到某个邮件列表里就能帮助其他的人。

这样做最简单的办法是使用script(1)命令，同是带上参数指定存放输出的文件名。你应在重建系统之前立即这样做，然后在过程完成时输入exit。

# script /var/tmp/mw.out
Script started, output file is /var/tmp/mw.out
# make TARGET
... compile, compile, compile ...
# exit
Script done, ...

如果你这样做，就不要把文件存到/tmp里边。下次启动时，这个目录就会被清除掉。存放的最好地方是/var/tmp （如上个实例）或root的主目录。

21.4.7.2. 编译基本系统

你必须在/usr/src目录里边：

# cd /usr/src

（当然，除非你的源码是在其它地方，真是这样的话更换成那个目录就行了）。

使用make(1) 命令重建系统。这个命令会从Makefile（描述组成FreeBSD的程序应该怎样被重建，以什么样的顺序建立等等）里读取指令。

输入的一般命令格式如下：

# make -x -DVARIABLE target

这个例子里，-x是会传递给make(1)的一个选项。查看make(1)手册有你可用的选项例子。

-DVARIABLE传递一个变量给Makefile。这些变量控制了Makefile的行为。这些同/etc/make.conf设置的变量一样，只是提供了另一种设置它们的方法。

# make -DNOPROFILE target

是另一种指定不被建立(built)的先定库(profiled libraries)的方式，协同/etc/make.conf里的

NOPROFILE=    true     #    避免编译先定库

一起使用。

目标(target)告诉make(1) 什么该做。每个Makefile定义了一定数量不同的``目标(targets)''，然后你选择的目标就决定了什么会发生。

有些目标列在Makefile里的，但并不意味着你要执行。相反，建立过程(build process)利用它们把重建系统的一些必要的步骤分割成几个子步骤。

大部分的时间不需要向make(1)传递参数，因此你的命令看起来可能象这样：

# make target

从FreeBSD 的2.2.5版本开始（实际上，是先在FreeBSD-CURRENT 分支里第一次创建，然后在FreeBSD-STABLE的2.2.2 和 2.2.5两个版本间，进行了大翻新），world target已经分成了两个部分：buildworld 和installworld。

正如名字所暗示的，buildworld在/usr/obj下边建立了一个全新的树，然后installworld 就在当前的机器里安装这个树。

因为两个原因，这点很有用。首先，它允许你安全地完成建立(build)，而没有你运行的系统组成部分的影响。建立(build)是``自主的(self hosted)''。因为这样，你可以安全地在以多用户模式运行的机器里执行buildworld ，而不用当心不良影响。但是依然推荐你在单用户模式时运行installworld。

第二，允许你使用NFS装载(NFS mounts)升级你网络里的多台计算机。如果你有三台A, B 和 C想进行升级，在A执行make buildworld 和 make installworld。然后从ANFS装载(NFS mount)B 和 C的/usr/src和/usr/obj，接着你就执行make installworld 在B 和 C上安装建立(build)的结果。

尽管world target仍然存在，强烈建议你不要用它。

运行

# make buildworld

现在可能给make指定-j选项了，这样会使用产生出几个并发的进程来。这在多处理器(multi-CPU)机器里最有用。但是，由于大部分的编译过程是IO限制远胜CPU限制，它在单处理器(single-CPU)的机器里也是有用的。

在一般的单CPU机器里，你要运行：

# make -j4 buildworld

make(1) 然后会有至多4个进程在同一时刻执行。贴到邮件列表里的实验证据显示这样会收到最好的效果。

如果你有一台多CPU机器，那你就使用SMP配置内核，试试6到10之间的值，看这些值提速如何。

注意，这仍处在实验性阶段，如果提交到源码树上的话，可能会断送其前程(break this feature)。如果用这个参数编译的话，你报告错误前试试不用它。

21.4.7.3. 耗时

有许多因素影响build时间，但通常一台带有128 MB内存500 MHz的 Pentium III要花费大约2 小时来build FreeBSD-STABLE 树，并且在整个过程中不带什么技巧或捷径。FreeBSD-CURRENT 树花的时间还要更长一点。

21.4.8. 编译和安装新内核

要充分利用你的新系统，你应该重新编译内核。这是很有必要的，因为特定的内存结构已经发生了改变，像ps(1) 和 top(1) 这样的程序会不能工作，除非内核同源码树的版本是一样的。

最简单、最安全的方式是build 并安装一个基于一般性(GENERIC)的内核。虽然GENERIC可能没有适合你的系统的所有必要的设备，但它包括了启动你的系统到单用户模式所必需的内容。这是个不错的检测新系统是否工作正常的测试。在从GENERIC启动、核实系统可以工作后，你就可以建立(build)一个基于你的正常内核配置文件的新的内核了。

如果你升级到FreeBSD 4.0 或更高的版本，那么旧的内核build过程 (在Chapter 9有描述)就不适用了。实际上，你应该在你已经使用buildworld建立系统(built the world)后，执行这些命令。

Note: 如果你想建立一个定制内核，而且已经有了配置文件，只需象这样使用KERNCONF=MYKERNEL：

# cd /usr/src
# make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL
# make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL

在FreeBSD 4.2或更早的版本里，你必须使用KERNEL=替换KERNCONF=。在2001年2月2号以前发行的4.2-STABLE并不识别KERNCONF=。

注意，如果你已把内核安全级别(kern.securelevel)调高到了1以上，而且还设置了noschg或相似的标识到了你的内核二进制里边，你可能会发现转换到单用户模式里使用installkernel是很有必要的。另外你应该也能毫无问题地从多用户模式执行这两个命令。查看init(8)了解更多关于内核安全级(kern.securelevel)的信息；查看chflags(1) 了解更多关于不同文件标识的信息。

如果你升级到FreeBSD 4.0以前版本，你应旧的内核build程序。但还是推荐你使用新版的config(8)，可以使用下边的命令行：

# /usr/obj/usr/src/usr.sbin/config/config KERNELNAME

21.4.9. 重启到单用户模式

你应该单用户模式测试新内核。照Section 21.4.5处的说明去做。

21.4.10. 安装新的系统二进制(System Binaries)

如果你正建立一个足以使用make buildworld的FreeBSD版本，那么你现在应该使用installworld来安装新的系统二进制。

执行

# cd /usr/src
# make installworld

Note: 如果在make buildworld的命令行指定了变量，你就必须在make installworld如命令行里指定同样的变量。对于其它的选项也不是必需的，如，-j就不能同installworld一起使用。

举例，你执行了：

# make -DNOPROFILE buildworld

你就必须使用：

# make -DNOPROFILE installworld

来安装结果，否则就要试着安装先定(profiled)的在make buildworld阶段没有建立(built)的二进制文件。

21.4.11. 不是由make world更新的更新文件

重制系统(Remaking the world)不会使用新的或改过的配置文件更新某些目录（尤其像/etc, /var 和 /usr）

更新这些文件最简单的方式就是使用mergemaster(8)，手工去做也是可能的，只要你愿意。不管你选择哪一种，一定记得备份/etc以防出错。

21.4.11.1. mergemaster(合并主管)

贡献者： Tom Rhodes.

mergemaster(8) 工具是个有针对性的脚本(Bourne script)，用于检测/etc和/usr/src/etc源码树里边的配置文件的不同点。这是保持系统配置文件同源码树里的一起更新的推荐方式。

mergemaster 被集成到了3.3-RELEASE和3.4-RELEASE之间的FreeBSD基本系统里，这意味着自3.3版本起所有的-STABLE 和 -CURRENT系统都有。

在提示符里简单地输入mergemaster就可以开始，并观看它的开始过程。mergemaster会建立一个临时的根(root)环境，在/下，放置各种系统配置文件。这些文件然后同当前安装到你系统里的进行比较。此时，不同的文件会以diff(1)格式进行显示，使用+符号标识增加或修改的行，-标识将完全删除的行或将被替换成新行。查看diff(1) 手册可以得到更多关于diff(1)语法和文件不同点怎样显示的信息。

mergemaster(8) 会给你显示每个文件的不同处，这样你就可以选择是删除新文件（相对临时文件），是以未改状态安装临时文件，是以当前安装的文件合并临时文件，还是再看一次diff(1)结果。

“选择删除临时文件”将使mergemaster(8)知道我们希望保留我们当前的文件不改，并删除新的。并不推荐这个选择，除非你没有更改当前文件的理由。任何时候在mergemaster(8)提示符里输入?，你就会得到帮助。如果选择跳过文件，在其它文件处理完后再次进行。

“选择安装未修改临时文件”将会使新文件替换当前的。对大部分未改的文件，这是个最好的选择。

“选择合并文件”将为你打开一个文本编辑器，里边是两个文件的内容。你现在就可以一边合并它们，一边在屏幕里查看，同时从两者中选取部分生成最终文件。当两个文件一起比较时，l键会选择左边的内容，r会选择右边的。最终的输出是由两个部分组成的一个文件，用它就可以安装了。这个选项通常用于用户修改了设置的文件。

“选择再次查看diff(1)结果”将会在提供给选择之前，显示文件的不同处，就象mergemaster(8)所做的一样。

在mergemaster(8)完成了对系统文件的处理后，你会得到其它的选项。mergemaster(8)可能会问你是否要重建密码文件，如果你的FreeBSD版本超过5.0，还会问你是否想要执行MAKEDEV(8)，最后带上一个选项删除剩下的临时文件。

21.4.11.2. 手册更新

如果想要手工更新，但不要只是从/usr/src/etc把文件复制/etc就了事。有些文件是必须先``安装''的。这是因为/usr/src/etc目录并 不是想像的那样是/etc目录的一个复制。事实上，有些是文件是/etc有的，而/usr/src/etc里边没有。

如果你使用mergemaster(8) （作为推荐），你可以向前跳到下一节。

手工做最简单的方式是安装这些文件到一个新的目录，完成后再来查找不同处。

备份你已有的/etc虽然，理论上，没有什么会自动访问这个目录，事情还是做稳操胜当一点。复制已有/etc不到一个安全的地方，如：

# cp -Rp /etc /etc.old

-R 完成递归复制（设者注：即可以复制目录以下的所有内容），-p保留文件的时间、所属等等。

你需要建立的个虚目录(a dummy set of directories )来安装新的/etc和其它文件。/var/tmp/root是个不错的选择，除此之外，还有一些子目录是需要的。

# mkdir /var/tmp/root
# cd /usr/src/etc
# make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root distrib-dirs distribution

这样就建好了需要的目录结构，然后安装文件。在/var/tmp/root下建立的大部分子目录是空的，而且要删除掉。最简单的方式是：

# cd /var/tmp/root
# find -d . -type d | xargs rmdir 2>/dev/null

这样会删除所有的空目录。（标准的错误信息被重定向到了/dev/null，以防止关于非空目录的警告。

/var/tmp/root现在包含了应放在/下某个位置的所有文件。你现在必须仔细检查每一个文件，检测它们与你已有的文件有多大不同。

注意，有些已经安装在/var/tmp/root下的文件有个``.''在开头。在写的时候，像这样唯一的文件是/var/tmp/root/ 和 /var/tmp/root/root/里shell启动文件，尽管可能有其它的（依赖于你什么时候读取这个）。 确信使用ls -a可以看到它们。

最简单的方式是使用diff(1) 去比较两个文件：

# diff /etc/shells /var/tmp/root/etc/shells

这会显示出/etc/shells 文件和新的/var/tmp/root/etc/shells文件的不同处。用这些来决定是合并你已做的变化还是复制你的旧文件过来。

使用日戳(Time Stamp)命名新的Root(根)目录(/var/tmp/root)，这样你可以轻松地比较两个版本的不同: 频繁重建系统意味着必须频繁更新/etc，而这可能会有点烦琐。

在合并到/etc的文件里，最新更改的你可以做个复制，由此加快这个（指更新）过程。下边就给出了一个怎样做的主意。

  1. 像平常一样建立系统(Make the world)。当你想更新/etc 和其它目录里，给目标目录一个含有当前日期的名字。假如你是1998年2月14日做的，你可以执行下边的：

    # mkdir /var/tmp/root-19980214
# cd /usr/src/etc
# make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root-19980214 \
    distrib-dirs distribution

  2. 如上边列出的，从这个目录合并变化。

    在你完成后，不要删除/var/tmp/root-19980214目录。

  3. 在你下载了最新版的源码并改过后，执行第一步。这样将得到一个新的目录，可能叫做/var/tmp/root-19980221（如果等了一周做的升级）。

  4. 你现在能看到两个目录间的不同了---在隔周的时间里使用diff(1)建立递归diff产生的不同。：

    # cd /var/tmp
# diff -r root-19980214 root-19980221

    一般情况下，这两种间的不同处比/var/tmp/root-19980221/etc和/etc之间的不同要小很多。因为不同点更小，也就更容易把这些变化移到你的/etc目录里边。

  5. 你现在可以删除早先的两个/var/tmp/root-*目录：

    # rm -rf /var/tmp/root-19980214

  6. 每次你需要合并这些变化到/etc里，就重复这个流程。

你可以使用date(1)自动产生目录的名称：

# mkdir /var/tmp/root-`date "+%Y%m%d"`

21.4.12. 更新/dev

Note: 如果你正在运行FreeBSD 5.0 或更后的版本，你可以安全地跳过这部分。这些版本使用了devfs(5) 来透明地分配设备结点。

许多情况下，在有必要更新设备结点时，mergemaster(8) 工具就可以实现，并且可以自动地完成。这里的说明用于怎样手工更新设备结点。

考虑到安全，这里用的是多步流程。

  1. 复制/var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV到/dev：

    # cp /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV /dev

    如果你使用mergemaster(8)去更新/etc，那么你的MAKEDEV脚本应该已经被更新过，虽然它不会影响检查（使用diff(1)），必要时手工复制一下。

  2. 现在，给当前的/dev做个快照。照的时候一定要注意每个文件名的许可(permissions)、所属(ownerships)、主从数字(major and minor numbers)，不必包括日戳(time stamps)。最简单的方式是使用awk(1)提取信息：

    # cd /dev
# ls -l | awk '{print $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $6, $NF}' > /var/tmp/dev.out

  3. 重做设备结点：

    # sh MAKEDEV all

  4. 这时，把这个目录的另一个快照输出到/var/tmp/dev2.out。现在检查这两个文件，查找 任何你没建立的设备结点。就该不会很多，但是保险一点总是好的。

    # diff /var/tmp/dev.out /var/tmp/dev2.out

    你可能注意到磁盘分区(disk slice)的差别，它会使像：

    # sh MAKEDEV sd0s1

    那样的命令重新建立分区入口(slice entries)。 你的具体情况可能不同。

21.4.13. 更新/stand

Note: 这一步只是为了收尾，可以安全省略。如果你在使用FreeBSD 5.2或更新的版本，/rescue目录会为用户进行自动更新，使用的是在make installworld期间静态编译地最新的二进制文件，因此也就不用废话更新/stand的必要性了。

为了完成，你可能想额外地更新/stand里的文件。这些文件由链接到/stand/sysinstall的二进制文件硬链接组成。这个文件要静态链接，以便没有其它文件系统时（尤其是/usr）被装载时也能工作。

# cd /usr/src/release/sysinstall
# make all install

21.4.14. 重启

现在完成了。在你检查所有内容都放置正确后，你可以重启系统了。 只是简单的shutdown(8)可以这样做：

# shutdown -r now

21.4.15. 结束

恭喜！你现在成功升级了你的FreeBSD系统。

如果还有轻微的错误，可以轻易地重建系统的选定部分。例如，在部分升级或合并/etc时，你不小心删除了/etc/magic，file(1)命令就会停止工作。这种情况下，执行下边进行修复：

# cd /usr/src/usr.bin/file
# make all install

21.4.16. 问题

21.4.16.1. 每个变化你都须要重建系统吗？
21.4.16.2. 我的编译失败，并伴随有许多11（或其它的数字信息）号错误。是怎么回事呀？
21.4.16.3. 我完成后可以删除/usr/obj吗？
21.4.16.4. 中断的build可以被恢复吗？
21.4.16.5. 我怎样加快建立系统的速度？
21.4.16.6. 如果出现了错误我该怎么办？

21.4.16.1. 每个变化你都须要重建系统吗？

这个不好说，因为要看变化的情况。如，如果你刚运行了CVSup，并得到下边更新的文件：

src/games/cribbage/instr.c
src/games/sail/pl_main.c
src/release/sysinstall/config.c
src/release/sysinstall/media.c
src/share/mk/bsd.port.mk

这就不必重建整个系统。你只需到相关的子目录里执行make all install，仅此而已。但是，如果有重大变化，如src/lib/libc/stdlib，那么你就要重建系统或至少静态链接的那些部分（除了你增加的部分都是静态链接的）。

在这天后，就是你的事了。要是说每两个星期重建一下系统的话，你可能会高兴。或者你可能只想重做改变过的部分，确信你能找出所有依赖关系。

当然，所有这些依赖于你想升级的频率，和你是否想跟踪FreeBSD-STABLE 或 FreeBSD-CURRENT。

21.4.16.2. 我的编译失败，并伴随有许多11（或其它的数字信息）号错误。是怎么回事呀？

这个通常表示硬件错误。（重）建系统是个强压测试系统硬件的有效地方式，并且常常产生内存错误。这些正好表示它们自已做为编译器离奇地死于收到的奇怪信息。

一个确信的指示器是如果重新开始make，并且整个过程中会死在不同的点上。

对于这种情况，你没有什么可做的，除了更换机器里的部件，看是哪一个坏了。

21.4.16.3. 我完成后可以删除/usr/obj吗？

简短地说可以。

/usr/obj 包含了所有在编译阶段生成的目标文件。通常，在``make world''过程中第一步之一就是删除这个目录重新开始。这种情况下，在你完成后，保留/usr/obj没有多大意义，还可释放一大堆磁盘空间（通常在340 MB左右）。

只是，如果你清楚你在干什么，你可以让``make world''跳过这一步。这会让后继的build执行得更快，因为大部分的源码都不必再进行编译了。这个的另一面就在于敏感的依赖问题可以潜在，并以奇怪的方式引起build的失败。这在FreeBSD邮件列表里经常引起沸腾，当有人抱怨他们build失败时，并没意识到这是因为自已是想抄近路(意思是说少了些必要的步骤)。

21.4.16.4. 中断的build可以被恢复吗？

依赖于你在你找到问题之前整个过程进行了多远。

大体上 （这个并不是硬性规定），``make world''过程会建立新版的基本工具（如gcc(1)和make(1)）以及系统二进制文件。这些工具和二进制文件然后被安装。新的工具和库然后用来重建它们自已，并再次被安装。整个系统（现在包括了常规的用户程序，如ls(1) 或 grep(1)）然后使用新的系统文件被重建。

如果你处在最后阶段，你就知道了（因为你已经看过你存储的输出），然后你可以做（相当安全）：

... 问题修复 ...
# cd /usr/src
# make -DNOCLEAN all

这将不能取消``make world''先前所做的工作。

在``make world''所输出里，如果你看到如下信息：

--------------------------------------------------------------
Building everything..
--------------------------------------------------------------

那么这样做就是相当安全的。

如果你没有看到那个信息，或者你不能确定，那么安全第一，从问题(scratch)处重新开始。

21.4.16.5. 我怎样加快建立系统的速度？

  • 以单用户模式运行

  • 把/usr/src和/usr/obj目录放到不同磁盘里的独立文件系统里。如果可能，这些磁盘在不同的磁盘控制器里。

  • 更好的，是把这些文件系统放置到多个使用ccd(4)(连接磁盘驱动器--concatenated disk driver)设备的磁盘里。

  • 关掉profiling (在/etc/make.conf里设置 ``NOPROFILE=true'')。你差不多用不了它。

  • 在/etc/make.conf里也为CFLAGS设置上-O -pipe。最佳优化-O2会更慢，而且-O 和 -O2之间的优化差别基本上可以忽略。 -pipe让编译器使用管道而不用临时文件进行通信，这样可以减少磁盘存取（以内存作为代价）。

  • 传递-jn选项给make(1) 以便并发运行多个进程。这样就不会考虑你的是否是单个或多个处理器机器。

  • 存放/usr/src的文件系统可以使用noatime选项被装载（或再装载）。这样会防止文件系统记录文件的存取时间。你可能并不需要这些信息。

    # mount -u -o noatime /usr/src

    Warning这个例子里假定/usr/src是在它自已的文件系统里。如果不是（例如假设它是/usr的部分），那么你就需要那个文件系统装载点，而不是/usr/src。

  • 存放/usr/obj的文件系统可以使用async选项被装载（或被再装载）。这会引起异步写盘。换句话说，写是立即完成了，而数据要延迟几秒才会写到盘里。这就允许写到一堆，如此产生戏剧性的性能提高。

    Warning记住，这个选项会使你的文件系统更加脆弱。使用这个选项增大了这样一个机率：要是电源断了，在机器重启后，文件系统将处在不可恢复状态。

    如果在这个文件系统里/usr/obj是很关键的，这不是问题。如果你有其它有价值的数据在同一个文件系统，那么在你使用这个选项这前，确认备份一下。

    # mount -u -o async /usr/obj

    Warning同上，如果/usr/obj不在自已的文件系统里，使用相关装载点的名字把它从例子里边替换掉。

21.4.16.6. 如果出现了错误我该怎么办？

绝对确信你的环境没有先前build留下的残余。这点够简单。

# chflags -R noschg /usr/obj/usr
# rm -rf /usr/obj/usr
# cd /usr/src
# make cleandir
# make cleandir

不错，make cleandir真的要执行两次。

然后重新开始整个过程，使用make buildworld开始。

如果你还有问题，就把错误和uname -a的输出发送到FreeBSD general questions 邮件列表邮件列表。准备回答其它关于你的设置的问题！

21.5. 跟踪多台机器

贡献者 Mike Meyer.

如果你有多台机器想跟踪同样的源码树，那么让它们都下载源码并重建所有东西，看起有点浪费资源：磁盘空间、网络带宽以及CPU周期。解决的办法是让一台机器处理大部分的工作，而其它的机器通过NFS装载(mount)这些工作。这部分列举了一种这样做的方法。

21.5.1. 准备

首先，确定一批机器，运行的二进制代码是同一套---我们称作建造套件(build set)。每台机器可以有定制内核，但他们运行的是相同的用户区二进制文件(userland binaries)。从这个集起，选择一台机器做为建造机器(build machine)。这将是用于建造(build)系统和内核的机器。想像一下，它应该是一台快速的机器，有足够的空余的CPU来执行make world。你也想要选一台机器做为测试机器(test machine)，这个将用于软件的更新生成产品之前对他们进行测试。这个必须是一台你能提供的平时也可使用的机器。它可以是“建造机器”，但没这个必要。

在这个“建造套件”里的所有机器需要从同一台机器、同一个点上装载/usr/obj 和/usr/src。理想地，它们在“建造机器”上的两个不同的驱动器里，但是在那台机器上可以进行NFS装载。如果你有多个“建造套件”，/usr/src 应该在某个“建造机器”上，而在其它机器上进行NFS装载。

最后，确认“建造套件”里所有机器上的/etc/make.conf与“建造机器”里的相同。这意味着“建造机器”必须建造部分基本系统用于“建造套件”里所有机器的安装。同样，每台“建造机器”要有它自已的内核名字，使用/etc/make.conf里的KERNCONF进行设置，并且每台“建造机器”应该把它们列在KERNCONF里，同时把自已的内核列在最前。“建造机器”的/usr/src/sys/arch/conf里一定要有每台机器的内核配置文件，如果它想建造它们的内核的话。

21.5.2. 基本系统

既然所有的妥当了，就准备建造所有的东西。如Section 21.4.7.2中描述的一样在“建造机器”上建造内核和系统，但是什么也不安装。在建造结束后，转到“测试机器”上，安装你刚建造的内核。如果这台机器通过NFS装载了/usr/src和/usr/obj，在你重启到单用户模式里，你需要启动网络然后装载他们。最简单的方式是启动到多用户模式下，然后执行shutdown now转到单用户模式。一旦进入，你就可以安装新的内核和系统，并执行mergemaster，就像平常一样。完成后，重启返回到一般多用户模式操作这台机器。

在你确信所有在“测试机器”里都工作正常后，就使用相同的过程在“建造套件”里的其它机器里安装新的软件。

21.5.3. Ports

类似的想法是使用ports树。第一个关键的步骤是从同一台机子里装载/usr/ports到“建造套件”里的所有机子。然后正确设置/etc/make.conf共享distfiles。你应把DISTDIR设置到一个共享的目录里，那里可以被任何一个根(root)用户写入，并且是由你的NFS装载映射的。设置每一台机子的WRKDIRPREFIX到一个本地建造(build)目录。最后，如果你要建造和发布包(packages)，那么你应该设置PACKAGES到一个类似于DISTDIR的目录。

Chapter 22. Linux二进制兼容模式

Restructured and parts updated by Jim Mock. Originally contributed by Brian N. Handy and Rich Murphey.

22.1. 概要

FreeBSD提供了与其他几种类UNIX操作系统兼容的模式，包括Linux。 你可能会问为什么FreeBSD要能够运行Linux二进制程序？ 问题的答案很简单。许多公司和开发人员只为Linux开发程序， 因为它是目前计算机世界“最热门”的技术。 这样就导致我们这些FreeBSD用户必须把他们这些公司和开发人员开发的应用程序移植到本地FreeBSD版本上来。 问题是，这些公司中的绝大多数都无法知道有多少人会使用他们的FreeBSD版本的产品， 所以许多公司仍然只开发Linux平台的产品。那么FreeBSD用户应该做些什么呢？ 这就是使用Linux二进制兼容性的原因。

简单来讲，这种兼容性允许FreeBSD用户能够不做任何修改就可以运行大约90%的Linux应用程序。 这些包括StarOffice， Linux版的Netscape， Adobe® Acrobat®， RealPlayer® 5和7， VMware™， Oracle， WordPerfect®， Doom, Quake,和更多的其他程序。 据说在某些情况下，在FreeBSD上Linux程序的性能比它们在Linux上运行得还要好。

然而，一些具有Linux本身操作系统特性的程序就无法在FreeBSD上运行。 如果它们使用Linux的/proc文件系统（它与FreeBSD的/proc文件系统是不同的） 或如启用虚拟8086模式这样特定的 i386调用，那Linux的兼容模式就无法工作。

读完这章，你将了解到：

  • 如何在你的系统中启用Linux兼容模式。

  • 如何安装额外的Linux共享库。

  • 如何在FreeBSD上安装Linux应用程序。

  • 在FreeBSD上，Linux兼容模式的执行细节。

阅读这章之前，你应该知道：

  • 如何安装第三方软件（Chapter 4）。

22.2. 安装

默认的Linux兼容模式没有被打开。启用这个功能的最容易的方法是调用linux KLD对象（“Kernel LoaDable object”）。你可以在命令行通过健入linux来加载这个模块。

如果你想让Linux二进制兼容性总是被启用，你可以在/etc/rc.conf加入下面这一行：

linux_enable="YES"

kldstat(8)可以用来检查KLD模块是否加载：

% kldstat
Id Refs Address    Size     Name
 1    2 0xc0100000 16bdb8   kernel
 7    1 0xc24db000 d000     linux.ko

如果你不想或者无法将Linux KLD加载，你就需要在内核中静态链接进Linux二进制兼容模式。你必须在 你的内核配置文件里面加入options LINUX，然后按照Chapter 9重新编译内核。

22.2.1. 安装Linux运行时库

有两种方法来安装Linux运行时库，要么使用linux_base port， 要么手动安装。

22.2.1.1. 使用linux_base Port安装

这是最容易的安装方法，只需要像安装其他port一样从 ports collection来安装：

# cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base
# make install distclean

你现在应当是工作在Linux兼容模式下了。一些程序可能会提示系统库的版本不正确。通常，这不是问题。

Note: 有多个版本的emulators/linux_base port，针对不同的版本的Linux。 你应该选择最接近Linux应用程序需要的那个版本来安装。

22.2.1.2. 手动安装

如果你没有安装“ports” collection，你也可以通过手动来安装Linux运行时库。 你将需要这些程序依赖的Linux共享库，而且你需要创建一个“shadow root” 目录/compat/linux，任何要被Linux程序打开的共享库都首先在这个目录里面查找。 所以，如果一个Linux程序加载了，例如，/lib/libc.so，FreeBSD 会首先尝试打开 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so，如果不存在，它将尝试打开/lib/libc.so。 共享库应该安装在/compat/linux/lib而不是Linux ld.so报告的其他路径。

通常，你需要寻找Linux程序依赖的共享库。然后， 你需要在系统上做一个高效的Linux共享库设置，以便能够运行最新的Linux程序。

22.2.1.3. 如何安装额外的共享库

如果你安装了linux_base port，但是你的 你的应用程序仍会报告丢失共享库的信息？你如何知道Linux程序需要哪个共享库？ 基本上，有两种可能性（接下来的指令需要root权限）：

如果你有可以访问的Linux系统， 看看应用程序需要什么共享库， 把它们拷贝到你的FreeBSD系统。看下面的例子：

我们假设你通过FTP得到Linux程序Doom， 并把它放在你能访问的Linux系统上。然后你可以通过ldd linuxdoom来检查需要哪些共享库， 就像这样：

% ldd linuxdoom
libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0
libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0
libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29

你需要得到上面输出的右列的所有文件，并把他们拷贝到/compat/linux， 第一列的名字用符号连接指向它们。这样你的FreeBSD系统上就有了这些文件：

/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29

Note: 如果你已经有了一个与ldd 输出的第一列的主修订号相匹配的Linux共享库， 你将不需要把右列命名的文件拷贝到你的系统，你已经完成了工作。 如果有一个新的版本，那无论如何都要拷贝一个共享库。 你可以删掉旧的，你只要做一个符号连接到新的版本。 所以，如果有这些库在你的系统上：

/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27

如果你根据ldd输出的发现需要一个更新版本的库：

libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29

如果结尾的数字只有一到两个版本过期，那也不要担心拷贝/lib/libc.so.4.6.29， 因为程序在稍微旧一些的版本上也能很好地工作。 然而，如果喜欢的话，你可以替换libc.so，变成这样：

/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29
/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29

Note: 符号链接机制仅仅是Linux程序需要的。 FreeBSD的运行时连接器会自己寻找匹配的主修订号，你不需要为此担心。

22.2.2. 安装Linux ELF程序

ELF格式的程序需要一步额外的步骤“标记”。如果你尝试运行没有标记的ELF程序， 你会得到像下面这样的错误信息：

% ./my-linux-elf-binary
ELF binary type not known
Abort

为了帮助FreeBSD内核分辨FreeBSD ELF程序和Linux程序，要使用brandelf(1)工具：

% brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binary

GNU工具现在会自动把适当的标记信息放到ELF程序中，你以后遇到这个问题的机会越来越少。

22.2.3. 配置主机名解析器

如果DNS不能正常工作或是你得到下列信息：

resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+:
"hosts" is an invalid keyword

你就需要配置/compat/linux/etc/host.conf文件，此文件包含：

order hosts, bind
multi on

order这一行指出/etc/hosts先被搜索再接着搜索DNS。 如果/compat/linux/etc/host.conf没有被安装，Linux程序会读取FreeBSD的 /etc/host.conf然后提示不兼容的FreeBSD语法。 如果你没有使用/etc/resolv.conf 文件设置DNS，应该删除bind。

22.3. 安装Mathematica®

Updated for Mathematica 4.X by Murray Stokely. Merged with work by Bojan Bistrovic.

这节描述在FreeBSD系统上安装Linux版的Mathematica 4.X。

Linux版Mathematica在FreeBSD下运行的很好，但是 由Wolfram打包的二进制程序需要标记才能让FreeBSD知道需要使用Linux ABI来执行它们。

Linux版的Mathematica 或Mathematica for Students 可以从http://www.wolfram.com/直接定购。

22.3.1. 标记Linux程序

Linux程序可以在Wolfram发布的CDROM的Mathematica Unix目录中找到。 你必须将这个目录树拷贝到本地硬盘上，以便你能在运行安装程序之前用brandelf(1) 来标记Linux程序：

# mount /cdrom
# cp -rp /cdrom/Unix/ /localdir/
# brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Kernel/Binaries/Linux/*
# brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/FrontEnd/Binaries/Linux/*
# brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux/*
# brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Graphics/Binaries/Linux/*
# brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Converters/Binaries/Linux/*
# brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/LicenseManager/Binaries/Linux/mathlm
# cd /localdir/Installers/Linux/
# ./MathInstaller

另外，你也可以简单地用下面的命令将默认的ELF标记成Linux:

# sysctl kern.fallback_elf_brand=3

这将让FreeBSD知道没有标记的ELF程序使用Linux ABI，所以你将可以直接从CDROM来运行安装程序。

22.3.2. 获得你的Mathematica 密码

在你运行Mathematica之前，你必须从Wolfram获得对应你的“机器ID”的密码。

一旦你安装了Linux运行时库，并把Mathematica解包开了， 你可以在安装目录通过运行mathinfo来获得你的“机器ID”。 这个机器ID是以你的第一块以太网卡的MAC地址为基础的。

# cd /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux
# mathinfo
disco.example.com 7115-70839-20412

当你用email,电话或者传真向Wolfram注册时，给他们你的“机器ID”，就会返回一个包含一组数字的密码。 当你第一次运行Mathematica时就需要得到的密码。

22.3.3. 通过网络来运行Mathematica

Mathematica 使用一些特殊的字体来显示字符， 与现在使用的标准字体不一样（integrals, sums, Greek letters,等等）。 X协议要求将这些字体安装在 本地。 这意味着你需要从Mathematica的CDROM里面拷贝这些字体并安装到本地。 这些字体一般在CDROM的/cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts里面， 或本地硬盘的/usr/local/mathematica/SystemFiles/Fonts。 实际的字体在Type1和X子目录。有很多种方法来使用它们。

第一种方法是把字体拷贝到一个已存在的目录/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts。 这需要编辑fonts.dir文件。添加字体名字进去，并改变第一行的字体数目。 另外，你也需要在拷贝字体的目录下执行mkfontdir(1)。

第二种方法是拷贝目录到/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts：

# cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts
# mkdir X
# mkdir MathType1
# cd /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts
# cp X/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X
# cp Type1/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1
# cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X
# mkfontdir
# cd ../MathType1
# mkfontdir

现在，添加新的字体目录到你的字体目录：

# xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X
# xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1
# xset fp rehash

如果你正在使用XFree86服务器，你可以把它们添加到你的 XF86Config文件来自动加载。

如果你没有一个叫/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1的目录， 你可以把MathType1改成Type1。

22.4. 安装Maple™

Contributed by Aaron Kaplan. Thanks to Robert Getschmann.

Maple™是一个类似于Mathematica的商业数学软件。 你可以从http://www.maplesoft.com/买到这个软件并注册得到一个使用许可。 要在FreeBSD上安装这个软件，请按照下面的步骤：

  1. 从软件的发行包执行INSTALL shell脚本。当进入安装程序的提示符时， 选择“RedHat” 选项。典型的安装目录是/usr/local/maple。

  2. 如果你不这样做，可以从Maple Waterloo Software （http://register.maplesoft.com/） 为Maple订购一个许可。 然后拷贝到/usr/local/maple/license/license.dat。

  3. 通过运行Maple中的INSTALL_LIC安装shell脚本来 安装FLEXlm许可管理器。 指定许可服务器为你的机器名。

  4. 像下面这样Patch你的/usr/local/maple/bin/maple.system.type 文件：

       ----- snip ------------------
*** maple.system.type.orig      Sun Jul  8 16:35:33 2001
--- maple.system.type   Sun Jul  8 16:35:51 2001
***************
*** 72,77 ****
--- 72,78 ----
          # the IBM RS/6000 AIX case
          MAPLE_BIN="bin.IBM_RISC_UNIX"
          ;;
+     "FreeBSD"|\
      "Linux")
          # the Linux/x86 case
        # We have two Linux implementations, one for Red Hat and
   ----- snip end of patch -----

    请注意"FreeBSD"|\后面没有空格。

    这个补丁指示Maple把“FreeBSD”识别为一种Linux系统。 bin/maple shell脚本调用bin/maple.system.type 脚本执行uname -a来查找操作系统名，根据操作系统名，就知道该使用哪个程序。

  5. 启动许可服务器。

    下面的脚本，安装成/usr/local/etc/rc.d/lmgrd.sh， 是很方便的启动lmgrd的方法：

       ----- snip ------------

#! /bin/sh
PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin
PATH=${PATH}:/usr/local/maple/bin:/usr/local/maple/FLEXlm/UNIX/LINUX
export PATH

LICENSE_FILE=/usr/local/maple/license/license.dat
LOG=/var/log/lmgrd.log

case "$1" in
start)
    lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2
    echo -n " lmgrd"
    ;;
stop)
    lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} -x lmdown 2>> ${LOG} 1>&2
    ;;
*)
    echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" 1>&2
    exit 64
    ;;
esac

exit 0
   ----- snip ------------

  6. 开始测试Maple：

    % cd /usr/local/maple/bin
% ./xmaple

    你应该成功启动起来了。记得写信告诉Maplesoft你想要一个本地FreeBSD版本！

22.4.1. 一些缺陷

  • FLEXlm许可管理器可能是一个使用比较困难的工具。 关于它的额外的文档可以在http://www.globetrotter.com/找到。

  • lmgrd对许可文件非常挑剔，有一点问题就会core dump。 正确的许可文件看起来像下面这样：

    # =======================================================
# License File for UNIX Installations ("Pointer File")
# =======================================================
SERVER chillig ANY
#USE_SERVER
VENDOR maplelmg

FEATURE Maple maplelmg 2000.0831 permanent 1 XXXXXXXXXXXX \
         PLATFORMS=i86_r ISSUER="Waterloo Maple Inc." \
         ISSUED=11-may-2000 NOTICE=" Technische Universitat Wien" \
         SN=XXXXXXXXX

    Note: 序列号被'X'代替了。 chillig是主机名。

    只要不修改“FEATURE”行，编辑后一般都能工作。

22.5. 安装MATLAB®

Contributed by Dan Pelleg.

这一节描述在一个FreeBSD上安装Linux版本的MATLAB® version 6.5。 它工作的很好，除了Java Virtual Machine™例外（参考 Section 22.5.5）。

Linux版本的MATLAB可以从MathWorkshttp://www.mathworks.com订购。请确定你也得到了许可文件或安装说明。 等你成功后，让他们知道你想要一个本地FreeBSD版本。

22.5.1. 安装MATLAB

请按照下面的步骤安装MATLAB：

  1. 以root身份插入安装CD并挂载上。 推荐使用安装脚本，为了启动安装脚本，键入：

    # /compat/linux/bin/sh /cdrom/install

    Tip: 安装程序是图形的。如果你得到不能打开显示的错误，可以键入 setenv HOME ~USER， USER是你su(1)成的用户。

  2. 当问MATLAB的根目录时，键入： /compat/linux/usr/local/matlab。

    Tip: 为了下面的安装过程更方便，在shell提示符下键入 set MATLAB=/compat/linux/usr/local/matlab

  3. 根据获得MATLAB许可时的指示来编辑许可文件。

    Tip: 你可以用你喜欢的编辑器提前准备这个文件，并在安装程序要你编辑它之前拷贝到 $MATLAB/license.dat

  4. 完成安装过程

到这里，你的MATLAB安装已经完成了。 接下来的步骤是让它和你的FreeBSD 系统“胶合”在一起。

22.5.2. 许可管理器的启动

  1. 为许可管理器建立符号链接的脚本：

    # ln -s $MATLAB/etc/lmboot /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW
# ln -s $MATLAB/etc/lmdown /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW

  2. 建立启动文件/usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm.sh。 下面的例子是一个$MATLAB/etc/rc.lm.glnx86的修改版本。 变化的是文件的位置，和模拟Linux下许可管理器的启动。

    #!/bin/sh
case "$1" in
  start)
        if [ -f /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW ]; then
              /compat/linux/bin/sh /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW -u username && echo 'MATLAB_lmgrd'
        fi
        ;;
  stop)
    if [ -f /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW ]; then
            /compat/linux/bin/sh /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW  > /dev/null 2>&1
    fi
        ;;
  *)
    echo "Usage: $0 {start|stop}"
    exit 1
    ;;
esac

exit 0

    Important: 必须使脚本文件可执行：

    # chmod +x /usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm.sh

    你也必须替换username为机器上的一个用户（不要是root）。

  3. 用命令启动许可管理器：

    # /usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm.sh start

22.5.3. 链接Java运行时环境

改变Java运行时环境（JRE），链接到一个可以工作的版本：

# cd $MATLAB/sys/java/jre/glnx86/
# unlink jre; ln -s ./jre1.1.8 ./jre

22.5.4. 创建MATLAB启动脚本

  1. 把下面的启动脚本放到/usr/local/bin/matlab：

    #!/bin/sh
/compat/linux/bin/sh /compat/linux/usr/local/matlab/bin/matlab "$@"

  2. 然后输入命令chmod +x /usr/local/bin/matlab。

Tip: 依赖于你的emulators/linux_base版本， 你在运行这个脚本时可能会出错，为了避免错误，编辑/compat/linux/usr/local/matlab/bin/matlab， 把这行：

if [ `expr "$lscmd" : '.*->.*'` -ne 0 ]; then

（在13.0.1版本是在第410行）改成：

if test -L $newbase; then

22.5.5. 使用MATLAB

现在你已经准备好了键入matlab来启动使用它。 注意，随MATLAB一起发行的Java版本在FreeBSD下工作的不是很好。 它经常使MATLAB不能退出，你不得不用kill -9来杀掉它。 如果你根本不使用Java，你可以通过MATLAB带-nojvm参数来避免这个错误。

22.6. 安装Oracle®

Contributed by Marcel Moolenaar.

22.6.1. 前言

这节描述在FreeBSD上安装Linux版的Oracle 8.0.5和Oracle 8.0.5.1 Enterprise Edition。

22.6.2. 安装Linux环境

确信你已经从ports collection安装了emulators/linux_base 和devel/linux_devtools。如果运行这些ports有困难， 你可能不得不使用packages或老版本的ports collection。

如果你想运行智能代理，你还需要安Red Hat Tcl package: tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm。安装这些包的命令是使用官方安装程序 RPM（ports里面archivers/rpm）：

# rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm package

包的安装通常不会出错。

22.6.3. 创建Oracle环境

安装Oracle之前，你需要设置正确的环境。 这节只描述了在FreeBSD下安装Linux版本Oracle需要特别注意的地方。 不像在Oracle安装指南中所描述的那样。

22.6.3.1. 调整内核

正如Oracle安装指南描述的那样，你需要设置共享内存的最大值。 不要在FreeBSD下使用SHMMAX，SHMMAX 只是用来计算SHMMAXPGS和PGSIZE的。 因此要使用SHMMAXPGS。所有其他要使用的选项可以参考指南，例如：

options SHMMAXPGS=10000
options SHMMNI=100
options SHMSEG=10
options SEMMNS=200
options SEMMNI=70
options SEMMSL=61

设置这些选项来适应 Oracle的使用。

当然，确信你的内核配置文件中有下面这些选项：

options SYSVSHM #SysV shared memory
options SYSVSEM #SysV semaphores
options SYSVMSG #SysV interprocess communication

22.6.3.2. Oracle帐号

创建一个oracle帐号，正如你创建其他帐号一样。 oracle 帐号特殊的地方是你需要给它一个Linux shell。 添加/compat/linux/bin/bash到/etc/shells， 然后设置oracle帐号的shell为/compat/linux/bin/bash。

22.6.3.3. 环境

除了普通的Oracle变量外， 比如ORACLE_HOME和ORACLE_SID，你还必须设置下面的环境变量：

变量 值
LD_LIBRARY_PATH $ORACLE_HOME/lib
CLASSPATH $ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip
PATH /compat/linux/bin /compat/linux/sbin /compat/linux/usr/bin /compat/linux/usr/sbin /bin /sbin /usr/bin /usr/sbin /usr/local/bin $ORACLE_HOME/bin

建议在.profile里面设置所有的环境变量。一个完整的例子是：

ORACLE_BASE=/oracle; export ORACLE_BASE
ORACLE_HOME=/oracle; export ORACLE_HOME
LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$ORACLE_HOME/lib
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH
ORACLE_SID=ORCL; export ORACLE_SID
ORACLE_TERM=386x; export ORACLE_TERM
CLASSPATH=$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip
export CLASSPATH
PATH=/compat/linux/bin:/compat/linux/sbin:/compat/linux/usr/bin
PATH=$PATH:/compat/linux/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin
PATH=$PATH:/usr/local/bin:$ORACLE_HOME/bin
export PATH

22.6.4. 安装Oracle

由于linux模拟器的一个小错误，在启动安装程序之前，你必须在/var/tmp下 创建.oracle目录。你可以把它设为所有人可写，或者由oracle用户拥有。 你必须没有问题的安装Oracle，如果有问题，请检查一下Oracle 发行包，或先配置它。安装完Oracle后，执行下面两步的修补工作。

一个经常出现的问题是TCP协议的适配器没有安装好。结果你不能启动任何TCP监听。下面的工作将帮助你解决这个问题：

# cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib
# make -f ins_network.mk ntcontab.o
# cd $ORACLE_HOME/lib
# ar r libnetwork.a ntcontab.o
# cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib
# make -f ins_network.mk install

不要忘记了再运行一下root.sh！

22.6.4.1. 修补root.sh

从CD安装Oracle时，一些工作需要在root下执行， 这些工作都被记录在一个叫root.sh的脚本里面。这个脚本被写在orainst目录。 为了使用root.sh来正确定位chown或在Linux本地shell下执行脚本， 应该对它进行修补。

*** orainst/root.sh.orig Tue Oct 6 21:57:33 1998
--- orainst/root.sh Mon Dec 28 15:58:53 1998
***************
*** 31,37 ****
# This is the default value for CHOWN
# It will redefined later in this script for those ports
# which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h
! CHOWN=/bin/chown
#
# Define variables to be used in this script
--- 31,37 ----
# This is the default value for CHOWN
# It will redefined later in this script for those ports
# which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h
! CHOWN=/usr/sbin/chown
#
# Define variables to be used in this script

当你不从CD安装Oracle时， 你可以从源代码来修补root.sh。 它叫做rthd.sh，定位在源代码树的orainst目录。

22.6.4.2. 修补genclntsh

genclntsh脚本用来创建一个简单的共享客户端库。在建立demos时被使用。 完成补丁后就注释掉了下面的PATH变量：

*** bin/genclntsh.orig Wed Sep 30 07:37:19 1998
--- bin/genclntsh Tue Dec 22 15:36:49 1998
***************
*** 32,38 ****
#
# Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands
#PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH
! PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH
#
# each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst
--- 32,38 ----
#
# Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands
#PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH
! #PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH
#
# each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst

22.6.5. 运行Oracle

如果你已经按上面的指示去操作，你应该可以像在Linux下运行Oracle了。

22.7. 安装SAP® R/3®

Contributed by Holger Kipp. Original version converted to SGML by Valentino Vaschetto.

在FreeBSD上安装的SAP系统不会被SAP 支持团队-- 所支持——他们只支持某些特定的平台。

22.7.1. 前言

这篇文章描述了在FreeBSD系统上安装一个带有Oracle Database for Linux的SAP R/3 System，包括 FreeBSD的安装和Oracle的安装。 下面将描述两个不同的配置：

  • 在FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE上安装带有Oracle 8.0.5 的SAP R/3 4.6B (IDES)。

  • 在FreeBSD 4.5-STABLE上安装带有Oracle 8.1.7的 SAP R/3 4.6C。

虽然这篇文章深入地描述了许多重要的安装步骤，但它不能取代Oracle和 SAP R/3的安装指南。

请参考SAP R/3 Linux edition自带的文档和 Oracle的特殊问题。

22.7.2. 软件

下面的CD-ROMs被用作SAP的安装：

22.7.2.1. SAP R/3 4.6B, Oracle 8.0.5

名称 号码 描述
KERNEL 51009113 SAP Kernel Oracle / Installation / AIX, Linux, Solaris
RDBMS 51007558 Oracle / RDBMS 8.0.5.X / Linux
EXPORT1 51010208 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 1 of 6
EXPORT2 51010209 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 2 of 6
EXPORT3 51010210 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 3 of 6
EXPORT4 51010211 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 4 of 6
EXPORT5 51010212 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 5 of 6
EXPORT6 51010213 IDES / DB-Export / Disc 6 of 6

此外，我们使用Oracle 8 Server （Linux版本的8.0.5预览版，Linux内核是2.0.33）和 FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE。

22.7.2.2. SAP R/3 4.6C SR2, Oracle 8.1.7

名称 号码 描述
KERNEL 51014004 SAP Kernel Oracle / SAP Kernel Version 4.6D / DEC, Linux
RDBMS 51012930 Oracle 8.1.7/ RDBMS / Linux
EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 1 of 4
EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 2 of 4
EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 3 of 4
EXPORT1 51013953 Release 4.6C SR2 / Export / Disc 4 of 4
LANG1 51013954 Release 4.6C SR2 / Language / DE, EN, FR / Disc 1 of 3

依赖于你要安装的语言，可能需要额外的语言CDs。 这儿我们只使用DE和EN，所以只需要第一张语言CD。 还要注意的是所有EXPORT CDs的号码是一样的。 其他3张语言CDs的号码也一样（这和4.6B IDES release CD的号码不同）。

22.7.3. SAP Notes

安装使用SAP R/3之前，请先看看下面的注释：

22.7.3.1. SAP R/3 4.6B, Oracle 8.0.5

号码 标题
0171356 SAP Software on Linux: Essential Comments
0201147 INST: 4.6C R/3 Inst. on UNIX - Oracle
0373203 Update / Migration Oracle 8.0.5 --> 8.0.6/8.1.6 LINUX
0072984 Release of Digital UNIX 4.0B for Oracle
0130581 R3SETUP step DIPGNTAB terminates
0144978 Your system has not been installed correctly
0162266 Questions and tips for R3SETUP on Windows NT / W2K

22.7.3.2. SAP R/3 4.6C, Oracle 8.1.7

号码 标题
0015023 Initializing table TCPDB (RSXP0004) (EBCDIC)
0045619 R/3 with several languages or typefaces
0171356 SAP Software on Linux: Essential Comments
0195603 RedHat 6.1 Enterprise version: Known problems
0212876 The new archiving tool SAPCAR
0300900 Linux: Released DELL Hardware
0377187 RedHat 6.2: important remarks
0387074 INST: R/3 4.6C SR2 Installation on UNIX
0387077 INST: R/3 4.6C SR2 Inst. on UNIX - Oracle
0387078 SAP Software on UNIX: OS Dependencies 4.6C SR2

22.7.4. 硬件要求

下面的设备配置对SAP R/3 System来说已经足够了。如果 用于生产用途，就需要更强的配置：

组件 4.6B 4.6C
处理器 2 x 800MHz Pentium III 2 x 800MHz Pentium III
内存 1GB ECC 2GB ECC
Hard Disk Space 50-60GB (IDES) 50-60GB (IDES)

用于生产使用，就需要使用带大缓存的Xeon™处理器，和高速大容量磁盘（SCSI, RAID hardware controller），以及USV 和ECC-RAM内存。 配置IDES System前需要大量的硬盘空间，因为安装时将创建27 GB的数据库文件。 这些空间用于系统和数据的初始化也是足够的。

22.7.4.1. SAP R/3 4.6B, Oracle 8.0.5

对于这个安装，我的硬件配置如下：带2个800 MHz Pentium III处理器的主板， Adaptec 29160 Ultra160 SCSI适配器（能够访问40/80 GB DLT磁带机和CDROM）， Mylex AcceleRAID™ （2个通道， firmware 6.00-1-00 with 32 MB RAM）。 Mylex RAID controller被挂上2个17 GB（mirrored）硬盘和4个36 GB硬盘(RAID level 5)。

22.7.4.2. SAP R/3 4.6C, Oracle 8.1.7

对于这个安装，配置是Dell™ PowerEdge™ 2500，带2个1000 MHz Pentium III处理器的 主板（256 kB Cache）， 2 GB PC133 ECC SDRAM， PERC/3 DC PCI RAID Controller with 128 MB，和一个EIDE DVD-ROM驱动器。RAID controller被挂上2个18 GB硬盘（mirrored） 和4个36 GB硬盘（RAID level 5）。

22.7.5. 安装FreeBSD

首先需要安装FreeBSD。有几种方法来装（FreeBSD 4.3通过FTP安装， FreeBSD 4.5直接从RELEASE CD安装）。 更多信息参考Section 2.13。

22.7.5.1. 磁盘划分

为了简单，对SAP R/3 46B和SAP R/3 46C SR2的安装使用相同的磁盘划分。只是设备名换了，因为是安装在不同的硬件上（ /dev/da和/dev/amr， 所以如果是使用AMI MegaRAID，我们能看到/dev/amr0s1a代替了 /dev/da0s1a）：

文件系统 尺寸(1k-blocks) 尺寸(GB) 挂载点
/dev/da0s1a 1.016.303 1 /
/dev/da0s1b   6 swap
/dev/da0s1e 2.032.623 2 /var
/dev/da0s1f 8.205.339 8 /usr
/dev/da1s1e 45.734.361 45 /compat/linux/oracle
/dev/da1s1f 2.032.623 2 /compat/linux/sapmnt
/dev/da1s1g 2.032.623 2 /compat/linux/usr/sap

预先用Mylex 或PERC/3 RAID 软件配置和初始化这两个逻辑驱动器。 改变BIOS的引导顺序来启动软件。

请注意这里的磁盘划分和SAP推荐的是不一样的，SAP建议把 Oracle子目录（及其他子目录）分离开来， 我决定只简单的创建几个子目录。

22.7.5.2. make world和建立新内核

下载最新的-STABLE源代码，配置完内核配置文件后重建系统和新内核。 这儿当然要包括 SAP R/3 和Oracle需要的内核参数。

22.7.6. 安装Linux环境

22.7.6.1. 安装Linux基本系统

首先linux_base port需要安装（以root身份）：

# cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base
# make install distclean

22.7.6.2. 安装Linux开发环境

如果你想根据Section 22.6在FreeBSD上安装 Oracle ：

# cd /usr/ports/devel/linux_devtools
# make install distclean

Linux开发环境只是安装给SAP R/3 46B IDES的，如果Oracle DB不是在这个 FreeBSD系统上重新链接，它就不需要了。

22.7.6.3. 安装必需的RPMs

为了启动R3SETUP程序， PAM支持是必需的。 第一次安装SAP到FreeBSD 4.3-STABLE时我们先安装了 PAM的所有依赖包再安装PAM包，它可以工作。对于SAP R/3 4.6C SR2我们 直接安装PAM RPM也可以工作，所以依赖包不是必需的：

# rpm -i --ignoreos --nodeps --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm \
pam-0.68-7.i386.rpm

要让Oracle 8.0.5运行智能代理， 我们需要安装RedHat Tcl包tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm （否则重新链接Oracle不能工作）。 重新链接Oracle时还有其他要注意的地方， 但那是Oracle Linux的问题，不是FreeBSD的问题。

22.7.6.4. 其它一些注意的地方

添加linprocfs到/etc/fstab是个好主意， 更多信息看linprocfs(5)手册页。 另一个要设置的参数是kern.fallback_elf_brand=3， 在/etc/sysctl.conf里面设置。

22.7.7. 创建SAP R/3环境

22.7.7.1. 创建必需的文件系统和挂载点

对简单的安装，创建下面的文件系统就够了：

mount point size in GB
/compat/linux/oracle 45 GB
/compat/linux/sapmnt 2 GB
/compat/linux/usr/sap 2 GB

创建一些链接也是必要的，否则SAP安装程序在检查创建的链接时 会报错：

# ln -s /compat/linux/oracle /oracle
# ln -s /compat/linux/sapmnt /sapmnt
# ln -s /compat/linux/usr/sap /usr/sap

安装时可能出现的错误（对于PRD系统和SAP R/3 4.6C SR2 的安装）：

INFO 2002-03-19 16:45:36 R3LINKS_IND_IND SyLinkCreate:200
    Checking existence of symbolic link /usr/sap/PRD/SYS/exe/dbg to
    /sapmnt/PRD/exe. Creating if it does not exist...

WARNING 2002-03-19 16:45:36 R3LINKS_IND_IND SyLinkCreate:400
    Link /usr/sap/PRD/SYS/exe/dbg exists but it points to file
    /compat/linux/sapmnt/PRD/exe instead of /sapmnt/PRD/exe. The
    program cannot go on as long as this link exists at this
    location. Move the link to another location.

ERROR 2002-03-19 16:45:36 R3LINKS_IND_IND Ins_SetupLinks:0
    can not setup link '/usr/sap/PRD/SYS/exe/dbg' with content
    '/sapmnt/PRD/exe'

22.7.7.2. 创建用户和目录

SAP R/3需要两个用户和3个组。 用户名依赖于包含3个字母的SAP系统ID（SID）。一些SIDs 被SAP保留（例如SAP和NIX）。 完成的列表参考SAP文档。对于IDES的安装，我们使用IDS， 对于4.6C SR2安装，使用PRD。 这样我们定义了下面的几个组：

组ID 组名 描述
100 dba Data Base Administrator
101 sapsys SAP System
102 oper Data Base Operator

对于默认的Oracle安装，只有dba组被使用。 和oper组一样，我们也可以使用dba组 （更详细的信息参考Oracle和 SAP文档）。

我们也需要下面的用户

用户ID 用户名 普通名称 组 附加组 描述
1000 idsadm/prdadm sidadm sapsys oper SAP Administrator
1002 oraids/oraprd orasid dba oper Oracle Administrator

使用adduser(8)添加用户要求“SAP Administrator”有下面的记录 （请注意shell和home目录）：

Name: sidadm
Password: ******
Fullname: SAP Administrator SID
Uid: 1000
Gid: 101 (sapsys)
Class:
Groups: sapsys dba
HOME: /home/sidadm
Shell: bash  (/compat/linux/bin/bash)

对于“Oracle Administrator”:

Name: orasid
Password: ******
Fullname: Oracle Administrator SID
Uid: 1002
Gid: 100 (dba)
Class:
Groups: dba
HOME: /oracle/sid
Shell: bash  (/compat/linux/bin/bash)

在你使用组dba和oper的情况下你也应该包括 oper。

22.7.7.3. 创建目录

这些目录通常建立在不同的文件系统上。这完全依赖于你的需求。 我们选择把它们建立在同一个目录：

首先我们将设置一些目录的所有者和权限（以root身份设置）：

# chmod 775 /oracle
# chmod 777 /sapmnt
# chown root:dba /oracle
# chown sidadm:sapsys /compat/linux/usr/sap
# chmod 775 /compat/linux/usr/sap

然后我们以orasid身份创建目录， 这些目录将成为/oracle/SID的子目录：

# su - orasid
# cd /oracle/SID
# mkdir mirrlogA mirrlogB origlogA origlogB
# mkdir sapdata1 sapdata2 sapdata3 sapdata4 sapdata5 sapdata6
# mkdir saparch sapreorg
# exit

对于Oracle 8.1.7的安装，需要一些额外的目录：

# su - orasid
# cd /oracle
# mkdir 805_32
# mkdir client stage
# mkdir client/80x_32
# mkdir stage/817_32
# cd /oracle/SID
# mkdir 817_32

Note: 目录client/80x_32必须是这个名字，不要用其他数字或字母来替换x。

第三步我们要以sidadm身份创建目录：

# su - sidadm
# cd /usr/sap
# mkdir SID
# mkdir trans
# exit

22.7.7.4. /etc/services中的条目

SAP R/3在/etc/services里面需要一些条目， 这些不会在安装过程中被正确设置，请添加下面的条目：

sapdp00    3200/tcp # SAP Dispatcher.      3200 + Instance-Number
sapgw00  3300/tcp # SAP Gateway.         3300 + Instance-Number
sapsp00  3400/tcp #                      3400 + Instance-Number
sapms00  3500/tcp #                      3500 + Instance-Number
sapmsSID 3600/tcp # SAP Message Server.  3600 + Instance-Number
sapgw00s   4800/tcp # SAP Secure Gateway   4800 + Instance-Number

22.7.7.5. 必要的本地化

SAP至少要求两个本地化设置，它不是RedHat的默认安装。 SAP提供从他们的FTP服务器下载必需的RPMs（只有你是OSS的客户才能访问）。 看注解0171356查找你需要的RPMs列表。

也可以只创建适当的链接（例如从de_DE到en_US）， 但是我们不推荐在生产系统上这样做（尽管它让IDES system工作的没有一点问题）。 下面的本地化设置是必需的：

de_DE.ISO-8859-1
en_US.ISO-8859-1

像这样创建链接

# cd /compat/linux/usr/share/locale
# ln -s de_DE de_DE.ISO-8859-1
# ln -s en_US en_US.ISO-8859-1

如果他们不出现，在安装时可能会有问题。如果忽略这些问题（通过设置CENTRDB.R3S文件 里面的STATUS为OK），不费一番周折， 你就别想登陆进SAP系统。

22.7.7.6. 内核调整

SAP R/3 需要许多资源。我因此添加了下面的参数在我的内核配置文件中：

# Set these for memory pigs (SAP and Oracle):
options MAXDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)"
options DFLDSIZ="(1024*1024*1024)"
# System V options needed.
options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory
options SHMMAXPGS=262144 #max amount of shared mem. pages
#options SHMMAXPGS=393216 #use this for the 46C inst.parameters
options SHMMNI=256 #max number of shared memory ident if.
options SHMSEG=100 #max shared mem.segs per process
options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues
options MSGSEG=32767 #max num. of mes.segments in system
options MSGSSZ=32 #size of msg-seg. MUST be power of 2
options MSGMNB=65535 #max char. per message queue
options MSGTQL=2046 #max amount of msgs in system
options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores
options SEMMNU=256 #number of semaphore UNDO structures
options SEMMNS=1024 #number of semaphores in system
options SEMMNI=520 #number of semaphore identifiers
options SEMUME=100       #number of UNDO keys

这篇文档中指定的最小值是来自SAP。没有针对Linux的描述，看看HP-UX的相关介绍了解更多信息 。 安装4.6C SR2需要更多的内存，共享内存比SAP和 Oracle需要的还多，所以尽量为共享内存选一个大值。

Note: FreeBSD 4.5在i386上缺省应该设置MAXDSIZ和 DFLDSIZ到1 GB。否则，奇怪的错误像 ``ORA-27102: out of memory''和 ``Linux Error: 12: Cannot allocate memory'' 会出现。

22.7.8. 安装SAP R/3

22.7.8.1. 准备SAP CDROMs

在安装过程中，有许多CDROM要被挂上和卸下。建议你有多个CDROM驱动器， 你可以把它们都挂上。我决定拷贝CDROM的内容到相应的目录：

/oracle/SID/sapreorg/cd-name

对于4.6B/IDES的安装，cd-name是KERNEL， RDBMS， EXPORT1， EXPORT2，EXPORT3, EXPORT4, EXPORT5 和 EXPORT6中的一个，对于4.6C SR2的安装，是 KERNEL， RDBMS， DISK1，DISK2， DISK3，DISK4和 LANG中的一个。 所有挂载上的CDs里面的文件名都应该是大写， 否则要用-g选项来挂载。所以使用下面的命令：

# mount_cd9660 -g /dev/cd0a /mnt
# cp -R /mnt/* /oracle/SID/sapreorg/cd-name
# umount /mnt

22.7.8.2. 运行安装脚本

首先你需要准备一个install目录：

# cd /oracle/SID/sapreorg
# mkdir install
# cd install

然后运行安装脚本，他会拷贝所有相关的文件到install目录：

# /oracle/SID/sapreorg/KERNEL/UNIX/INSTTOOL.SH

由于这是一个完全定制化的SAP R/3演示系统的IDES安装（4.6B）， 我们有6个而不仅仅是3个EXPORT CDs。 基于这点，安装模板CENTRDB.R3S是用来安装一个标准的中央环境 （R/3和数据库），而不是IDES中央环境， 所以从EXPORT1目录拷贝相应的CENTRDB.R3S， 否则R3SETUP只要求3个EXPORT CDs。

新的SAP 4.6C SR2发行版带有4张EXPORT CDs。 控制安装步骤的参数文件是CENTRAL.R3S。 和早期发行版不同，它没有分开的中央环境的安装模板。

安装完后，使用hostname命令得到SAP需要的主机名， 不需要完整的域名。 所以为orasid和 sidadm 直接设置主机名，或设置别名alias hostname='hostname -s'。 可以在.profile和.login里面为这两个用户设置。

22.7.8.3. 启动R3SETUP 4.6B

确定LD_LIBRARY_PATH设置正确：

# export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/oracle/IDS/lib:/sapmnt/IDS/exe:/oracle/805_32/lib

从安装目录以root身份启动R3SETUP：

# cd /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/install
# ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3S

这个脚本会问一些问题（括号里面是缺省值，后面是实际输入）：

问题 缺省值 输入
Enter SAP System ID [C11] IDSEnter
Enter SAP Instance Number [00] Enter
Enter SAPMOUNT Directory [/sapmnt] Enter
Enter name of SAP central host [troubadix.domain.de] Enter
Enter name of SAP db host [troubadix] Enter
Select character set [1] (WE8DEC) Enter
Enter Oracle server version (1) Oracle 8.0.5, (2) Oracle 8.0.6, (3) Oracle 8.1.5, (4) Oracle 8.1.6   1Enter
Extract Oracle Client archive [1] (Yes, extract) Enter
Enter path to KERNEL CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/KERNEL
Enter path to RDBMS CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/RDBMS
Enter path to EXPORT1 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT1
Directory to copy EXPORT1 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD4_DIR] Enter
Enter path to EXPORT2 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT2
Directory to copy EXPORT2 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD5_DIR] Enter
Enter path to EXPORT3 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT3
Directory to copy EXPORT3 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD6_DIR] Enter
Enter path to EXPORT4 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT4
Directory to copy EXPORT4 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD7_DIR] Enter
Enter path to EXPORT5 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT5
Directory to copy EXPORT5 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD8_DIR] Enter
Enter path to EXPORT6 CD [/sapcd] /oracle/IDS/sapreorg/EXPORT6
Directory to copy EXPORT6 CD [/oracle/IDS/sapreorg/CD9_DIR] Enter
Enter amount of RAM for SAP + DB   850Enter (in Megabytes)
Service Entry Message Server [3600] Enter
Enter Group-ID of sapsys [101] Enter
Enter Group-ID of oper [102] Enter
Enter Group-ID of dba [100] Enter
Enter User-ID of sidadm [1000] Enter
Enter User-ID of orasid [1002] Enter
Number of parallel procs [2] Enter

如果没有把CD拷贝到不同的位置，那么SAP安装程序就不能 找到需要的CD（通过CD上的LABEL.ASC来辨别）， 它会要求你挂上CD，或键入加载路径。

CENTRDB.R3S不可能是自由出错的， 它再次请求EXPORT4 CD，但是正确的值是6_LOCATI ON，然后7_LOCATION 等，所以你可以键入正确的值。

处理下面提到的问题，一样东西都要直接通过Oracle数据库软件安装的地方。

22.7.8.4. Start R3SETUP 4.6C SR2

确定LD_LIBRARY_PATH设置正确。 这和带Oracle 8.0.5的4.6B的安装是不同的：

# export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/sapmnt/PRD/exe:/oracle/PRD/817_32/lib

以root身份从安装目录启动R3SETUP ：

# cd /oracle/PRD/sapreorg/install
# ./R3SETUP -f CENTRAL.R3S

这个脚本会问一些问题（括号里面是缺省值，后面是实际输入）：

问题 缺省值 输入
Enter SAP System ID [C11] PRDEnter
Enter SAP Instance Number [00] Enter
Enter SAPMOUNT Directory [/sapmnt] Enter
Enter name of SAP central host [majestix] Enter
Enter Database System ID [PRD] PRDEnter
Enter name of SAP db host [majestix] Enter
Select character set [1] (WE8DEC) Enter
Enter Oracle server version (2) Oracle 8.1.7   2Enter
Extract Oracle Client archive [1] (Yes, extract) Enter
Enter path to KERNEL CD [/sapcd] /oracle/PRD/sapreorg/KERNEL
Enter amount of RAM for SAP + DB 2044 1800Enter (in Megabytes)
Service Entry Message Server [3600] Enter
Enter Group-ID of sapsys [100] Enter
Enter Group-ID of oper [101] Enter
Enter Group-ID of dba [102] Enter
Enter User-ID of oraprd [1002] Enter
Enter User-ID of prdadm [1000] Enter
LDAP support   3Enter (no support)
Installation step completed [1] (continue) Enter
Choose installation service [1] (DB inst,file) Enter

到目前为止， 安装阶段只在创建用户时给出了一个错误OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA（创建 用户orasid）和 OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA（创建用户sidadm）。

处理下面提到的问题，一样东西都要直接通过Oracle数据库软件安装的地方。

22.7.9. 安装Oracle 8.0.5

请看相应的SAP注释和 Oracle的关于Linux的Readme 以及Oracle DB可能出现的问题。不是所有的问题都和不兼容库有关。

关于Oracle更多的安装信息，请参考安装Oracle。

22.7.9.1. 用orainst安装Oracle 8.0.5

如果Oracle 8.0.5要被使用，一些其他的库需要被成功地重新链接， 因为Oracle 8.0.5是与一个老的glibc连接的（Redhat 6.0）， 但RedHat 6.1已经使用了一个新的glibc。所以你必须安装下面额外的软件包来保证链接正常：

compat-libs-5.2-2.i386.rpm

compat-glibc-5.2-2.0.7.2.i386.rpm

compat-egcs-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpm

compat-egcs-c++-5.2-1.0.3a.1.i386.rpm

compat-binutils-5.2-2.9.1.0.23.1.i386.rpm

更多的信息，看相应的SAP注释和Oracle的Readme。 如果这不是选项，你可以使用最初的程序，或使用与最初的Redhat系统重链接的程序。

要编译智能代理，必须安装RedHat Tcl包。如果你不能得到 tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm，一个更新的 tcl-8.0.5-30.i386.rpm也可以用。

除了重新链接，安装是直截了当的：

# su - oraids
# export TERM=xterm
# export ORACLE_TERM=xterm
# export ORACLE_HOME=/oracle/IDS
# cd /ORACLE_HOME/orainst_sap
# ./orainst

用Enter来确认所有的屏幕直到安装完成，除了你必须取消 Oracle On-Line Text Viewer选项，因为当前Linux下不可用。 Oracle会要求用i386-glibc20-linux-gcc重新链接来 代替gcc，egcs或者i386-redhat-linux-gcc 。

由于时间紧迫，我决定使用Oracle 8.0.5 PreProduction版本。

22.7.9.2. 安装Oracle 8.0.5 Pre-production Release for Linux （Kernel 2.0.33）

个安装很容易。挂上CD，启动安装程序。它就会要求Oraclehome目录的定位， 然后拷贝那儿所有的程序。我不删除先前安装的RDBMS。

然后，Oracle数据库就可以毫无问题地运行了。

22.7.10. 安装Oracle 8.1.7 Linux压缩包

拷贝oracle81732.tgz到你要安装的目录， 然后解压到/oracle/SID/817_32/。

22.7.11. 继续SAP R/3安装

首先检查用户idsamd (sidadm)和 oraids(orasid)的环境变量。 他们现在都有使用主机名的.profile，.login 和.cshrc文件。在这个例子中，系统的主机名是没有限制的名称， 你必须在所有三个文件中改变hostname为hostname -s。

22.7.11.1. 加载数据库

然后，可以重新启动或继续R3SETUP。 R3SETUP就使用R3load 创建表空间加载数据（对46B IDES，从EXPORT1到EXPORT6，对46C从DISK1到DISK4）。

数据加载完后（可能需要一些时间），需要创建一些口令。对于测试安装，可以使用缺省口令：

问题 输入
Enter Password for sapr3 sapEnter
Confirum Password for sapr3 sapEnter
Enter Password for sys change_on_installEnter
Confirm Password for sys change_on_installEnter
Enter Password for system managerEnter
Confirm Password for system managerEnter

到目前为止，我们只在安装4.6B的过程中dipgntab出现了几个问题。

22.7.11.2. 监听

像下面这样用orasid用户启动 Oracle：

% umask 0; lsnrctl start

另外你可能得到ORA-12546错误，因为sockets没有正确的权限。 看SAP注释072984。

22.7.11.3. 更新MNLS表

如果你打算倒入non-Latin-1 languages到SAP系统， 你必须更新表的多语言支持。这在SAP OSS注释15023和45619有描述。否则， 你可以在安装SAP的时候忽略这个问题。

Note: 如果你不需要MNLS，还是需要检查表TCPDB和初始化工作是否做了。 更多信息参考SAP注释0015023和0045619。

22.7.12. 快速安装步骤

22.7.12.1. 需要SAP R/3许可密钥

你不得不要SAP R/3许可密钥。这是必需的， 因为临时许可只能用4个星期。 首先得到硬件的密匙。以用idsadm登入， 然后调用saplicense：

# /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -get

不带参数调用saplicense会给出一系列选项。 要安装上面的许可密钥，可以这样：

# /sapmnt/IDS/exe/saplicense -install

你要输入下面的值：

SAP SYSTEM ID   = SID, 3 chars
CUSTOMER KEY    = hardware key, 11 chars
INSTALLATION NO = installation, 10 digits
EXPIRATION DATE = yyyymmdd, usually "99991231"
LICENSE KEY     = license key, 24 chars

22.7.12.2. 创建用户

在客户机000中创建一个用户（有些工作需用客户机000来完成，但与用户sap*和 ddic有些不同）。 作为一个用户名，我通常选择wartung （或英语中的service）。 配置文件需要sap_new和 sap_all。对于额外的安全的默认用户口令应当被改变（这包括用户sap*和 ddic）。

22.7.12.3. 配置传送系统，配置，操作模式等

在客户端000，用户不同于ddic和sap*，做下面的工作：

任务 处理
Configure Transport System, e.g. as Stand-Alone Transport Domain Entity STMS
Create / Edit Profile for System RZ10
Maintain Operation Modes and Instances RZ04

些和所有其他的快速安装步骤在SAP安装指南里面有描述。

22.7.12.4. 编辑initsid.sap（initIDS.sap）

文件/oracle/IDS/dbs/initIDS.sap 包含了SAP备份配置。 这儿是使用的磁带机的大小，压缩的类型。要使用sapdba / brbackup来得到这些。 我们可以改变下面的值：

compress = hardware
archive_function = copy_delete_save
cpio_flags = "-ov --format=newc --block-size=128 --quiet"
cpio_in_flags = "-iuv --block-size=128 --quiet"
tape_size = 38000M
tape_address = /dev/nsa0
tape_address_rew = /dev/sa0

解释

compress：我使用的磁带机是HP DLT1，它支持硬件压缩。

archive_function： 这个定义了保存Oracle文件日志的默认行为：新的日志文件被保存到磁带机上， 保存的日志文件会被再次保存然后再删除。如果你需要恢复数据库， 而其中一个磁带机已经损坏了，这可以防止出现麻烦。

cpio_flags：缺省使用-B来设置块大小为 5120 Bytes。对于DLT-Tapes，HP建议至少32 K，所以我们使用--block-size=128 设置64 K。 --format=newc是必需的，因为我的inode数目超过了65535。 最后一个选项--quiet是必需的，否则brbackup会在用 cpio来输出的时候报错。

cpio_in_flags： 这个标志从磁带机加载回数据。格式是自动验证的。

tape_size: 通常给出了磁带机的存储容量。出于安全原因，这个值要比实际的值要小一些。

tape_address：被cpio使用的非rewindable的设备。

tape_address_rew：被cpio使用的非rewindable的设备。

22.7.12.5. 安装后的配置

下面的SAP参数应该在安装以后调整（例子是IDES 46B, 1 GB内存）：

名称 值
ztta/roll_extension 250000000
abap/heap_area_dia 300000000
abap/heap_area_nondia 400000000
em/initial_size_MB 256
em/blocksize_kB 1024
ipc/shm_psize_40 70000000

SAP注释0013026：

名称 值
ztta/dynpro_area 2500000

SAP注释0157246：

Name Value
rdisp/ROLL_MAXFS 16000
rdisp/PG_MAXFS 30000

Note: 根据上面的参数，在使用1 GB内存的系统上，可以像下面这样找到内存消耗：

Mem: 547M Active, 305M Inact, 109M Wired, 40M Cache, 112M Buf, 3492K Free

22.7.13. 安装过程出现的问题

22.7.13.1. 修复一个问题后重起R3SETUP

如果出现问题R3SETUP会停止。如果你找到相关的日志文件并修复了问题。 你需要再次重起R3SETUP，对于R3SETUP报的最后一个错误可以使用 REPEAT选项。

要重起R3SETUP，只要使用相应的R3S文件重起：

# ./R3SETUP -f CENTRDB.R3S

for 4.6B, or with

# ./R3SETUP -f CENTRAL.R3S

对4.6C，不管有没有错误都使用CENTRAL.R3S或 DATABASE.R3S。

Note: 在某些阶段，R3SETUP假设database和SAP 进程都启动了。但是如果发生错误使得database没有启动，你就必须手动启动database和SAP。 修复错误后，还需要再次重起R3SETUP。

也不要忘记再次重起Oracle监听。

22.7.13.2. OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA during R3SETUP

如果在这阶段R3SETUP报错,编辑R3SETUP使用的模板文件 （CENTRDB.R3S (4.6B)或者CENTRAL.R3S或者DATABASER3S (4.6C)）。定位到[OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA]或者搜索STATUS=ERROR条目 然后像下面这样编辑它：

HOME=/home/sidadm (was empty)
STATUS=OK (had status ERROR)

然后重起R3SETUP。

22.7.13.3. OSUSERDBSID_IND_ORA during R3SETUP

R3SETUP也可能在这个阶段报错。修正方法和上面的OSUSERSIDADM_IND_ORA一样。 编辑下面的值：

STATUS=OK

重起R3SETUP。

22.7.13.4. Oracle安装找不到``oraview.vrf文件''

开始安装之前没有取消Oracle On-Line Text Viewer 既然这个选项当前没有用于Linux，这在安装时是需要标记的，在Oracle 安装中取消它，然后重新安装。

22.7.13.5. ``TEXTENV_INVALID'' during R3SETUP, RFC or SAPgui Start

如果这个错误还出现，正确的本地化可能已经丢了。 SAP注释0171356列出了必须的RPMs （比如saplocales-1.0-3, saposcheck-1.0-1 for RedHat 6.1）。 在这个例子中，你忽略了所有相关的错误， STATUS从ERROR到OK然后重起 R3SETUP。SAP系统不会被正确地配置， 你就不能用一个SAPgui连接到系统。 设法使用一个旧的Linux sapgui连接会得到下面的信息：

Sat May 5 14:23:14 2001
*** ERROR => no valid userarea given [trgmsgo. 0401]
Sat May 5 14:23:22 2001
*** ERROR => ERROR NR 24 occured [trgmsgi. 0410]
*** ERROR => Error when generating text environment. [trgmsgi. 0435]
*** ERROR => function failed [trgmsgi. 0447]
*** ERROR => no socket operation allowed [trxio.c 3363]
Speicherzugriffsfehler

这个问题归咎于SAP R/3不能正确地本地化，也不能自己正确地配置。 要能够连接到SAP, 需要在 DEFAULT.PFL（看注释0043288） 文件中添加下面的记录：

abap/set_etct_env_at_new_mode = 0
install/collate/active = 0
rscp/TCP0B = TCP0B

重起SAP系统。现在，你可以连接到系统， 即使你指定的国家语言不能正常工作。设置完国家后，这些记录会从DEFAULT.PFL文件 删除。然后重新启动SAP系统。

22.7.13.6. ORA-00001

这个错误只会在FreeBSD 4.5上安装Oracle 8.1.7 的时候出现。因为Oracledatabase不能自己正确初始化。 在系统上保留semaphores和shared memory。 然后再次启动数据库会出现ORA-00001错误。

用ipcs -a找到再用ipcrm去掉。

22.7.13.7. ORA-00445 （后台进程PMON没有启动）

这个错误发生在Oracle 8.1.7上。 如果没有用prdadm用户启动startsap脚本 （例如startsap_majestix_00）会报这个错误。

一种可能的解决方法是用oraprd用户使用svrmgrl：

% svrmgrl
SVRMGR> connect internal;
SVRMGR> startup;
SVRMGR> exit

22.7.13.8. ORA-12546（用正确的权限启动监听）

以oraids用户启动Oracle监听：

# umask 0; lsnrctl start

如果你得到ORA-12546错误，没有权限连接到sockets。 请看SAP注释0072984。

22.7.13.9. ORA-27102 (Out of Memory)

这个错误发生在使用MAXDSIZ和DFLDSIZ大于 1 GB（1024x1024x1024）。 我们一般得到错误``Linux Error 12: Cannot allocate memory''。

22.7.13.10. [DIPGNTAB_IND_IND] during R3SETUP

通常，看SAP注释0130581 （R3SETUP步骤里面的 DIPGNTAB终止）。在IDES-specific安装的时候，因为某些原因 安装过程没有使用正确的SAP系统名“IDS”，而是用空字符 ""代替。 这会导致一些访问目录的小问题，因为路径是动态使用 SID来创建的（这里是IDS）。所以用下面的方法代替：

/usr/sap/IDS/SYS/...
/usr/sap/IDS/DVMGS00

下面的路径被使用

/usr/sap//SYS/...
/usr/sap/D00

为了继续安装，我们创建了一个附加的目录：

# pwd
/compat/linux/usr/sap
# ls -l
total 4
drwxr-xr-x 3  idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:20 D00
drwxr-x--x 5  idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 11:35 IDS
lrwxr-xr-x 1  root   sapsys 7 May 5 11:35 SYS -> IDS/SYS
drwxrwxr-x 2  idsadm sapsys 512 May 5 13:00 tmp
drwxrwxr-x 11 idsadm sapsys 512 May 4 14:20 trans

我们也发现在SAP注释（0029227和0008401）里面描述了这个行为。 我们没有在SAP 4.6C安装里面遭遇这些问题。

22.7.13.11. [RFCRSWBOINI_IND_IND] during R3SETUP

安装SAP 4.6C时，这个错误是前面发生过的一个错误的 结果。所以，你不得不查看相应的日志文件并修复错误。

如果查看完日志文件后这个错误确实存在（看SAP注释），你可以设置STATUS 从ERROR到OK（CENTRDB.R3S文件里面） 然后重起R3SETUP。安装完后，你必须从事务SE38执行 RSWBOINS。关于RFCRSWBOINI和RFCRADDBDIF的更多信息 查看SAP注释0162266。

22.7.13.12. [RFCRADDBDIF_IND_IND] during R3SETUP

通过查看日志文件确定这个错误，它不是由于前面的问题导致的。

如果你确定已经应用了SAP注释0162266，就只要设置 STATUS从ERROR到OK （CENTRDB.R3S文件里面）。然后重起R3SETUP。 安装完后，你必须从事务SE38执行RADDBDIF。

22.7.13.13. sigaction sig31: File size limit exceeded

这个错误在启动SAP进程disp+work时出现。 如果用startsap脚本启动SAP， 就会启动子进程，并由它启动后面所有的其他SAP进程。 所以脚本本身不会注意到有错误发生。

为了检查SAP进程是否正确启动，可以用 ps ax | grep SID查看进程的状态。 你会得到所有Oracle和SAP进程列表。 如果看起来有些进程没有启动，或者你不能正确连接到SAP系统。 查看相应的日志文件，可以在/usr/sap/SID/DVEBMGSnr/work/下找到，一般查看dev_ms和dev_disp文件。

如果Oracle和SAP的共享内存总量超过了 内核配置文件定义的大小就会出现signal 31错误，并且不能解析大的内存地址：

# larger value for 46C production systems:
options SHMMAXPGS=393216
# smaller value sufficient for 46B:
#options SHMMAXPGS=262144

22.7.13.14. 启动saposcol失败

使用saposcol (version 4.6D)会出现一些问题。 SAP系统使用saposcol收集系统性能数据。 这个程序不是必需的。所以这些问题可以看作是小问题。 老版本（4.6B）可以工作，但是不能收集所有的性能数据（很多调用只返回0，像CPU使用率）。

22.8. 高级主题

如果你对Linux兼容模式是如何工作的感到好奇，这节正是你所需要的。 下面的绝大部分内容是由 Terry Lambert （Message ID: <199906020108.SAA07001@usr09.primenet.com>）发表在邮件列表FreeBSD chat 邮件列表上的内容组成的。

22.8.1. 它是如何工作的？

FreeBSD有一个“可执行类加载器”。它主要是嵌入了execve(2)系统调用。

碰巧的是FreeBSD有一个引导器（loader）的列表，而不是一个简单的返回一个 符号 #!的引导器！

从历史上来讲，只有UNIX平台的引导器会检查魔术（magic）数 （通常是文件的前4个或8个字节）是否是二进制的， 如果是，就调用二进制引导程序。

如果它不是二进制类型的execve(2)调用就会返回一个错误，shell就试图用shell命令执行它。

缺省是使用“当前设定的shell”。

随后，进行了一些hack, sh(1)开始检查前两个字符，如果它们是:\n， 那它就调用csh(1)（我们相信是SCO最先做这个hack的）。

FreeBSD现在所做的是用一个普通的#!引导器仔细检查引导器的列表， 然后由解释程序一个接一个地解释，返回给/bin/sh。

为了支持Linux ABI，FreeBSD就把魔术数看作为一个二进制ELF程序。（ 这样一来，它就使得在FreeBSD， Solaris，Linux和其他任何操作系统之间只要使用ELF格式就都可以顺利运行）。

ELF引导器会寻找一个专门的标记， 它是在ELF映像中的一个注释部分，但在SVR4/Solaris的ELF中没有。

为了执行Linux程序，它们必须被打上Linux类型的标记； 使用brandelf(1)：

# brandelf -t Linux file

做完之后，ELF引导器就会看到文件上的Linux的标记。

当ELF引导器看到Linux的标记， 引导器就会在proc结构中替换一个指示器。 所有的系统调用就会通过这个指示器来索引（在一个传统的 UNIX系统中， 这就是sysent[]结构队列，包含系统调用）。 此外，为了解决由于信号杂乱所造成的陷阱向量的问题，会造成线程的剧增， 需要切断其他（或较小的）由Linux内核模块产生的修正。

Linux系统调用向量包含一个sysent[]记录的列表， 它的地址位于内核模块之中。

当一个系统调用被Linux程序调用时，有缺陷的代码会把系统调用功能的指示器从proc结构中解除， 然后获得Linux，而不是FreeBSD，系统调用入口点。

另外，Linux模式动态地reroots查找；这和启动文件系统的union 选项是等效的（即时不是unionfs文件系统）。 首先会试图在/compat/linux/original-path 目录查找文件，如果失败了，就会在/original-path 目录下查找。这使得需要其它程序的程序可以运行（例如，Linux工具链都可以在Linux ABI的支持下工作）。 也就是说Linux程序可以加载和执行FreeBSD程序，如果当前没有相应的Linux程序， 那你可以在/compat/linux目录树中放置一个uname(1)，来确保Linux程序不提示它们不能运行在Linux上。

在FreeBSD内核中有一个Linux内核；由内核提供的能够提供所有服务的各种潜在功能 在FreeBSD系统调用表记录和Linux系统调用表记录之间是一样的： 文件系统操作，虚拟内存操作，信号发送，System V IPC，...等等。 唯一的不同是FreeBSD会得到FreeBSD的胶合功能， 而Linux程序会得到Linux的胶合功能 （大部分老的操作系统只有它们自己的胶合函数， 函数地址在静态全局变量sysent[]结构数据里面， 而不是动态的初始化到进程的proc结构）。

哪一个是FreeBSD自己的ABI呢？这无关紧要。基本上， 唯一的不同是FreeBSD的胶合功能是被静态连接到内核， 而Linux的胶合功能可能是被静态连接到内核， 也可能它们通过一个内核模块来访问。

有一个真正的模拟器吗？没有，它只不过是一个ABI执行机制，不是一个模拟器。

为什么有时它被叫做“Linux模拟器”？ 只是为了更容易地卖出FreeBSD罢了！ 实际上，历史上从来没有描述这样一种执行机制的名字，FreeBSD并不是真正地运行Linux程序，如果你不编译进代码， 或加载一个模块。 就需要有一个名字来描述这样一种加载功能--因此就想出了“Linux模拟器”这样一个名字。

III. 附录

Table of Contents
A. Obtaining FreeBSD
B. 参考文献
C. Resources on the Internet
D. PGP Keys

Appendix A. Obtaining FreeBSD

A.1. CDROM and DVD Publishers

A.1.1. Retail Boxed Products

FreeBSD is available as a boxed product (FreeBSD CDs, additional software, and printed documentation) from several retailers:

A.1.2. CD and DVD Sets

FreeBSD CD and DVD sets are available from many online retailers:

A.1.3. Distributors

If you are a reseller and want to carry FreeBSD CDROM products, please contact a distributor:

  •     Cylogistics
        2672 Bayshore Parkway, Suite 610
        Mountain View, CA 94043
        USA
        Phone: +1 650 694-4949
        Fax: +1 650 694-4953
        Email: 
        WWW: http://www.cylogistics.com/
      

  •     FreeBSD Services Ltd
        11 Lapwing Close
        Bicester
        OX26 6XR
        United Kingdom
        WWW: http://www.freebsd-services.com/
      

  •     Kudzu, LLC
        7375 Washington Ave. S.
        Edina, MN 55439
        USA
        Phone: +1 952 947-0822
        Fax: +1 952 947-0876
        Email: 
      

  •     Navarre Corp
        7400 49th Ave South
        New Hope, MN 55428
        USA
        Phone: +1 763 535-8333
        Fax: +1 763 535-0341
        WWW: http://www.navarre.com/
      

A.2. FTP Sites

The official sources for FreeBSD are available via anonymous FTP from a worldwide set of mirror sites. The site ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ is well connected and allows a large number of connections to it, but you are probably better off finding a ``closer'' mirror site (especially if you decide to set up some sort of mirror site).

The FreeBSD mirror sites database is more accurate than the mirror listing in the Handbook, as it gets its information from the DNS rather than relying on static lists of hosts.

Additionally, FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain FreeBSD via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you. The mirror sites listed as ``Primary Mirror Sites'' typically have the entire FreeBSD archive (all the currently available versions for each of the architectures) but you will probably have faster download times from a site that is in your country. The sites in each country carry the most recent versions for the most popular architecture(s) but might not carry the entire FreeBSD archive. All sites provide access via anonymous FTP but some sites also provide access via other methods. The access methods available for each site are provided for the sites in each country.

中央服务器, 主要镜像站点, 中国台湾, 中国大陆, 中国香港, 丹麦, 乌克兰, 俄罗斯, 克罗地亚, 冰岛, 加拿大, 匈牙利, 南非, 土耳其, 奥地利, 巴西, 希腊, 德国, 意大利, 挪威, 捷克共和国, 斯洛伐克共和国, 斯洛文尼亚, 新加坡, 日本, 沙特阿拉伯, 法国, 波兰, 澳大利亚, 爱尔兰, 爱沙尼亚, 瑞典, 瑞士, 立陶宛, 罗马尼亚, 美国, 芬兰, 英国, 荷兰, 葡萄牙, 西班牙, 阿根廷, 韩国.

( UTC 更新)

中央服务器
主要镜像站点

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

中国台湾

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

中国大陆

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

中国香港
丹麦

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

乌克兰
俄罗斯

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

克罗地亚

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

冰岛

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

加拿大

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

匈牙利

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

南非

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

土耳其
奥地利

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

巴西

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

希腊

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

德国

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

意大利

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

挪威

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

捷克共和国

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

斯洛伐克共和国

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

斯洛文尼亚

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

新加坡

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

日本

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

沙特阿拉伯

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

法国

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

波兰

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

澳大利亚

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

爱尔兰

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

爱沙尼亚

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

瑞典

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

瑞士

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

立陶宛

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

罗马尼亚

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

美国

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

芬兰

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

英国

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

荷兰

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

葡萄牙

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

西班牙

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

阿根廷

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

韩国

如有问题，请和负责相关子域服务器的管理员 联系。

A.3. Anonymous CVS

A.3.1. Introduction

Anonymous CVS (or, as it is otherwise known, anoncvs) is a feature provided by the CVS utilities bundled with FreeBSD for synchronizing with a remote CVS repository. Among other things, it allows users of FreeBSD to perform, with no special privileges, read-only CVS operations against one of the FreeBSD project's official anoncvs servers. To use it, one simply sets the CVSROOT environment variable to point at the appropriate anoncvs server, provides the well-known password ``anoncvs'' with the cvs login command, and then uses the cvs(1) command to access it like any local repository.

Note: The cvs login command, stores the passwords that are used for authenticating to the CVS server in a file called .cvspass in your HOME directory. If this file does not exist, you might get an error when trying to use cvs login for the first time. Just make an empty .cvspass file, and retry to login.

While it can also be said that the CVSup and anoncvs services both perform essentially the same function, there are various trade-offs which can influence the user's choice of synchronization methods. In a nutshell, CVSup is much more efficient in its usage of network resources and is by far the most technically sophisticated of the two, but at a price. To use CVSup, a special client must first be installed and configured before any bits can be grabbed, and then only in the fairly large chunks which CVSup calls collections.

Anoncvs, by contrast, can be used to examine anything from an individual file to a specific program (like ls or grep) by referencing the CVS module name. Of course, anoncvs is also only good for read-only operations on the CVS repository, so if it is your intention to support local development in one repository shared with the FreeBSD project bits then CVSup is really your only option.

A.3.2. Using Anonymous CVS

Configuring cvs(1) to use an Anonymous CVS repository is a simple matter of setting the CVSROOT environment variable to point to one of the FreeBSD project's anoncvs servers. At the time of this writing, the following servers are available:

  • USA: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password ``anoncvs'' when prompted.)

  • Germany: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password ``anoncvs'' when prompted.)

  • Germany: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs2.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (rsh, pserver, ssh, ssh/2022)

  • Japan: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password ``anoncvs'' when prompted.)

  • Austria: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.at.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter any password when prompted.)

Since CVS allows one to ``check out'' virtually any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in some cases, will exist), you need to be familiar with the revision (-r) flag to cvs(1) and what some of the permissible values for it in the FreeBSD Project repository are.

There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today.

Section A.6 contains revision tags that users might be interested in. Again, none of these are valid for the ports collection since the ports collection does not have multiple revisions.

When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the -D date flag. See the cvs(1) manual page for more details.

A.3.3. Examples

While it really is recommended that you read the manual page for cvs(1) thoroughly before doing anything, here are some quick examples which essentially show how to use Anonymous CVS:

Example A-1. Checking Out Something from -CURRENT (ls(1)) and Deleting It Again:

% setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
% cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password ``anoncvs''.
% cvs co ls
% cvs release -d ls
% cvs logout

Example A-2. Checking Out the Version of ls(1) in the 3.X-STABLE Branch:

% setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
% cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password ``anoncvs''.
% cvs co -rRELENG_3 ls
% cvs release -d ls
% cvs logout

Example A-3. Creating a List of Changes (as Unified Diffs) to ls(1)

% setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
% cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password ``anoncvs''.
% cvs rdiff -u -rRELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE -rRELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE ls
% cvs logout

Example A-4. Finding Out What Other Module Names Can Be Used:

% setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
% cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password ``anoncvs''.
% cvs co modules
% more modules/modules
% cvs release -d modules
% cvs logout

A.3.4. Other Resources

The following additional resources may be helpful in learning CVS:

  • CVS Tutorial from Cal Poly.

  • CVS Home, the CVS development and support community.

  • CVSweb is the FreeBSD Project web interface for CVS.

A.4. Using CTM

CTM is a method for keeping a remote directory tree in sync with a central one. It has been developed for usage with FreeBSD's source trees, though other people may find it useful for other purposes as time goes by. Little, if any, documentation currently exists at this time on the process of creating deltas, so talk to Poul-Henning Kamp for more information should you wish to use CTM for other things.

A.4.1. Why Should I Use CTM?

CTM will give you a local copy of the FreeBSD source trees. There are a number of ``flavors'' of the tree available. Whether you wish to track the entire CVS tree or just one of the branches, CTM can provide you the information. If you are an active developer on FreeBSD, but have lousy or non-existent TCP/IP connectivity, or simply wish to have the changes automatically sent to you, CTM was made for you. You will need to obtain up to three deltas per day for the most active branches. However, you should consider having them sent by automatic email. The sizes of the updates are always kept as small as possible. This is typically less than 5K, with an occasional (one in ten) being 10-50K and every now and then a large 100K+ or more coming around.

You will also need to make yourself aware of the various caveats related to working directly from the development sources rather than a pre-packaged release. This is particularly true if you choose the ``current'' sources. It is recommended that you read Staying current with FreeBSD.

A.4.2. What Do I Need to Use CTM?

You will need two things: The CTM program, and the initial deltas to feed it (to get up to ``current'' levels).

The CTM program has been part of FreeBSD ever since version 2.0 was released, and lives in /usr/src/usr.sbin/ctm if you have a copy of the source available.

If you are running a pre-2.0 version of FreeBSD, you can fetch the current CTM sources directly from:

http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/src/usr.sbin/ctm/

The ``deltas'' you feed CTM can be had two ways, FTP or email. If you have general FTP access to the Internet then the following FTP sites support access to CTM:

ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM/

or see section mirrors.

FTP the relevant directory and fetch the README file, starting from there.

If you wish to get your deltas via email:

Subscribe to one of the CTM distribution lists. ctm-cvs-cur supports the entire CVS tree. ctm-src-cur supports the head of the development branch. ctm-src-4 supports the 4.X release branch, etc.. (If you do not know how to subscribe yourself to a list, click on the list name above or go to http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo and click on the list that you wish to subscribe to. The list page should contain all of the necessary subscription instructions.)

When you begin receiving your CTM updates in the mail, you may use the ctm_rmail program to unpack and apply them. You can actually use the ctm_rmail program directly from a entry in /etc/aliases if you want to have the process run in a fully automated fashion. Check the ctm_rmail manual page for more details.

Note: No matter what method you use to get the CTM deltas, you should subscribe to the ctm-announce mailing list. In the future, this will be the only place where announcements concerning the operations of the CTM system will be posted. Click on the list name above and follow the instructions to subscribe to the list.

A.4.3. Using CTM for the First Time

Before you can start using CTM deltas, you will need to get to a starting point for the deltas produced subsequently to it.

First you should determine what you already have. Everyone can start from an ``empty'' directory. You must use an initial ``Empty'' delta to start off your CTM supported tree. At some point it is intended that one of these ``started'' deltas be distributed on the CD for your convenience, however, this does not currently happen.

Since the trees are many tens of megabytes, you should prefer to start from something already at hand. If you have a -RELEASE CD, you can copy or extract an initial source from it. This will save a significant transfer of data.

You can recognize these ``starter'' deltas by the X appended to the number (src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz for instance). The designation following the X corresponds to the origin of your initial ``seed''. Empty is an empty directory. As a rule a base transition from Empty is produced every 100 deltas. By the way, they are large! 70 to 80 Megabytes of gzip'd data is common for the XEmpty deltas.

Once you have picked a base delta to start from, you will also need all deltas with higher numbers following it.

A.4.4. Using CTM in Your Daily Life

To apply the deltas, simply say:

# cd /where/ever/you/want/the/stuff
# ctm -v -v /where/you/store/your/deltas/src-xxx.*

CTM understands deltas which have been put through gzip, so you do not need to gunzip them first, this saves disk space.

Unless it feels very secure about the entire process, CTM will not touch your tree. To verify a delta you can also use the -c flag and CTM will not actually touch your tree; it will merely verify the integrity of the delta and see if it would apply cleanly to your current tree.

There are other options to CTM as well, see the manual pages or look in the sources for more information.

That is really all there is to it. Every time you get a new delta, just run it through CTM to keep your sources up to date.

Do not remove the deltas if they are hard to download again. You just might want to keep them around in case something bad happens. Even if you only have floppy disks, consider using fdwrite to make a copy.

A.4.5. Keeping Your Local Changes

As a developer one would like to experiment with and change files in the source tree. CTM supports local modifications in a limited way: before checking for the presence of a file foo, it first looks for foo.ctm. If this file exists, CTM will operate on it instead of foo.

This behavior gives us a simple way to maintain local changes: simply copy the files you plan to modify to the corresponding file names with a .ctm suffix. Then you can freely hack the code, while CTM keeps the .ctm file up-to-date.

A.4.6. Other Interesting CTM Options

A.4.6.1. Finding Out Exactly What Would Be Touched by an Update

You can determine the list of changes that CTM will make on your source repository using the -l option to CTM.

This is useful if you would like to keep logs of the changes, pre- or post- process the modified files in any manner, or just are feeling a tad paranoid.

A.4.6.2. Making Backups Before Updating

Sometimes you may want to backup all the files that would be changed by a CTM update.

Specifying the -B backup-file option causes CTM to backup all files that would be touched by a given CTM delta to backup-file.

A.4.6.3. Restricting the Files Touched by an Update

Sometimes you would be interested in restricting the scope of a given CTM update, or may be interested in extracting just a few files from a sequence of deltas.

You can control the list of files that CTM would operate on by specifying filtering regular expressions using the -e and -x options.

For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of lib/libc/Makefile from your collection of saved CTM deltas, run the commands:

# cd /where/ever/you/want/to/extract/it/
# ctm -e '^lib/libc/Makefile' ~ctm/src-xxx.*

For every file specified in a CTM delta, the -e and -x options are applied in the order given on the command line. The file is processed by CTM only if it is marked as eligible after all the -e and -x options are applied to it.

A.4.7. Future Plans for CTM

Tons of them:

  • Use some kind of authentication into the CTM system, so as to allow detection of spoofed CTM updates.

  • Clean up the options to CTM, they became confusing and counter intuitive.

A.4.8. Miscellaneous Stuff

There is a sequence of deltas for the ports collection too, but interest has not been all that high yet.

A.4.9. CTM Mirrors

CTM/FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain CTM via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you.

In case of problems, please contact Poul-Henning Kamp .

California, Bay Area, official source
South Africa, backup server for old deltas
Taiwan/R.O.C.

If you did not find a mirror near to you or the mirror is incomplete, try to use a search engine such as alltheweb.

A.5. Using CVSup

A.5.1. Introduction

CVSup is a software package for distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are maintained in a CVS repository on a central development machine in California. With CVSup, FreeBSD users can easily keep their own source trees up to date.

CVSup uses the so-called pull model of updating. Under the pull model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client. The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either run the CVSup client manually to get an update, or they must set up a cron job to run it automatically on a regular basis.

The term CVSup, capitalized just so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components are the client cvsup which runs on each user's machine, and the server cvsupd which runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites.

As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you may see references to sup. Sup was the predecessor of CVSup, and it served a similar purpose. CVSup is used much in the same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are backward-compatible with sup's. Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD project, because CVSup is both faster and more flexible.

A.5.2. Installation

The easiest way to install CVSup is to use the precompiled net/cvsup package from the FreeBSD packages collection. If you prefer to build CVSup from source, you can use the net/cvsup port instead. But be forewarned: the net/cvsup port depends on the Modula-3 system, which takes a substantial amount of time and disk space to download and build.

Note: If you are going to be using CVSup on a machine which will not have XFree86 installed, such as a server, be sure to use the port which does not include the CVSup GUI, net/cvsup-without-gui.

A.5.3. CVSup Configuration

CVSup's operation is controlled by a configuration file called the supfile. There are some sample supfiles in the directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup/.

The information in a supfile answers the following questions for CVSup:

In the following sections, we will construct a typical supfile by answering each of these questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of a supfile.

A supfile is a text file. Comments begin with # and extend to the end of the line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only comments are ignored.

Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a ``collection'', a logical grouping of files defined by the server. The name of the collection tells the server which files you want. After the collection name come zero or more fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword standing alone, e.g., delete or compress. A value field also begins with a keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white space by = and a second word. For example, release=cvs is a value field.

A supfile typically specifies more than one collection to receive. One way to structure a supfile is to specify all of the relevant fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to make the supfile lines quite long, and it is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the collections in a supfile. CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special pseudo-collection name *default can be used to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the subsequent collections in the supfile. A default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by specifying a different value with the collection itself. Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by additional *default lines.

With this background, we will now proceed to construct a supfile for receiving and updating the main source tree of FreeBSD-CURRENT.

  • Which files do you want to receive?

    The files available via CVSup are organized into named groups called ``collections''. The collections that are available are described in the following section. In this example, we wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is a single large collection src-all which will give us all of that. As a first step toward constructing our supfile, we simply list the collections, one per line (in this case, only one line):

    src-all

  • Which version(s) of them do you want?

    With CVSup, you can receive virtually any version of the sources that ever existed. That is possible because the cvsupd server works directly from the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You specify which one of them you want using the tag= and date= value fields.

    WarningBe very careful to specify any tag= fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or misspelled tag, CVSup will delete files which you probably do not want deleted. In particular, use only tag=. for the ports-* collections.

    The tag= field names a symbolic tag in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today.

    Section A.6 contains branch tags that users might be interested in. When specifying a tag in CVSup's configuration file, it must be preceded with tag= (RELENG_4 will become tag=RELENG_4). Keep in mind that only the tag=. is relevant for the ports collection.

    WarningBe very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown. CVSup cannot distinguish between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag, CVSup will behave as though you had specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no files at all. It will delete your existing sources in that case.

    When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the date= value field. The cvsup(1) manual page explains how to do that.

    For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-CURRENT. We add this line at the beginning of our supfile:

    *default tag=.

    There is an important special case that comes into play if you specify neither a tag= field nor a date= field. In that case, you receive the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS repository, rather than receiving a particular version. Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their systems, they gain the ability to browse the revision histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space, however.

  • Where do you want to get them from?

    We use the host= field to tell cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any of the CVSup mirror sites will do, though you should try to select one that is close to you in cyberspace. In this example we will use a fictional FreeBSD distribution site, cvsup666.FreeBSD.org:

    *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org

    You will need to change the host to one that actually exists before running CVSup. On any particular run of cvsup, you can override the host setting on the command line, with -h hostname.

  • Where do you want to put them on your own machine?

    The prefix= field tells cvsup where to put the files it receives. In this example, we will put the source files directly into our main source tree, /usr/src. The src directory is already implicit in the collections we have chosen to receive, so this is the correct specification:

    *default prefix=/usr

  • Where should cvsup maintain its status files?

    The CVSup client maintains certain status files in what is called the ``base'' directory. These files help CVSup to work more efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have already received. We will use the standard base directory, /usr/local/etc/cvsup:

    *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup

    This setting is used by default if it is not specified in the supfile, so we actually do not need the above line.

    If your base directory does not already exist, now would be a good time to create it. The cvsup client will refuse to run if the base directory does not exist.

  • Miscellaneous supfile settings:

    There is one more line of boiler plate that normally needs to be present in the supfile:

    *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress

    release=cvs indicates that the server should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS repository. This is virtually always the case, but there are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this discussion.

    delete gives CVSup permission to delete files. You should always specify this, so that CVSup can keep your source tree fully up-to-date. CVSup is careful to delete only those files for which it is responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be left strictly alone.

    use-rel-suffix is ... arcane. If you really want to know about it, see the cvsup(1) manual page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about it.

    compress enables the use of gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should not use compression. Otherwise, it helps substantially.

  • Putting it all together:

    Here is the entire supfile for our example:

    *default tag=.
*default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org
*default prefix=/usr
*default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup
*default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress

src-all

A.5.3.1. The refuse File

As mentioned above, CVSup uses a pull method. Basically, this means that you connect to the CVSup server, and it says, ``Here is what you can download from me...'', and your client responds ``OK, I will take this, this, this, and this.'' In the default configuration, the CVSup client will take every file associated with the collection and tag you chose in the configuration file. However, this is not always what you want, especially if you are synching the doc, ports, or www trees -- most people cannot read four or five languages, and therefore they do not need to download the language-specific files. If you are CVSuping the ports collection, you can get around this by specifying each collection individually (e.g., ports-astrology, ports-biology, etc instead of simply saying ports-all). However, since the doc and www trees do not have language-specific collections, you must use one of CVSup's many nifty features: the refuse file.

The refuse file essentially tells CVSup that it should not take every single file from a collection; in other words, it tells the client to refuse certain files from the server. The refuse file can be found (or, if you do not yet have one, should be placed) in base/sup/. base is defined in your supfile; by default, base is /usr/local/etc/cvsup, which means that by default the refuse file is /usr/local/etc/cvsup/sup/refuse.

The refuse file has a very simple format; it simply contains the names of files or directories that you do not wish to download. For example, if you cannot speak any languages other than English and some German, and you do not feel the need to use the German applications (or applications for any other languages, except for English), you can put the following in your refuse file:

ports/chinese
ports/french
ports/german
ports/hebrew
ports/hungarian
ports/japanese
ports/korean
ports/polish
ports/portuguese
ports/russian
ports/ukrainian
ports/vietnamese
doc/da_*
doc/de_*
doc/el_*
doc/es_*
doc/fr_*
doc/it_*
doc/ja_*
doc/nl_*
doc/no_*
doc/pl_*
doc/pt_*
doc/ru_*
doc/sr_*
doc/zh_*

and so forth for the other languages (you can find the full list by browsing the FreeBSD CVS repository).

With this very useful feature, those users who are on slow links or pay by the minute for their Internet connection will be able to save valuable time as they will no longer need to download files that they will never use. For more information on refuse files and other neat features of CVSup, please view its manual page.

A.5.4. Running CVSup

You are now ready to try an update. The command line for doing this is quite simple:

# cvsup supfile

where supfile is of course the name of the supfile you have just created. Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual things. Press the go button, and watch it run.

Since you are updating your actual /usr/src tree in this example, you will need to run the program as root so that cvsup has the permissions it needs to update your files. Having just created your configuration file, and having never used this program before, that might understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra argument on the command line:

# mkdir /var/tmp/dest
# cvsup supfile /var/tmp/dest

The directory you specify will be used as the destination directory for all file updates. CVSup will examine your usual files in /usr/src, but it will not modify or delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in /var/tmp/dest/usr/src. CVSup will also leave its base directory status files untouched when run this way. The new versions of those files will be written into the specified directory. As long as you have read access to /usr/src, you do not even need to be root to perform this kind of trial run.

If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs, you should add a couple of options to the command line when you run cvsup:

# cvsup -g -L 2 supfile

The -g tells CVSup not to use its GUI. This is automatic if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to specify it.

The -L 2 tells CVSup to print out the details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three levels of verbosity, from -L 0 to -L 2. The default is 0, which means total silence except for error messages.

There are plenty of other options available. For a brief list of them, type cvsup -H. For more detailed descriptions, see the manual page.

Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you can arrange for regular runs of CVSup using cron(8). Obviously, you should not let CVSup use its GUI when running it from cron(8).

A.5.5. CVSup File Collections

The file collections available via CVSup are organized hierarchically. There are a few large collections, and they are divided into smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collections. The hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by the use of indentation in the list below.

The most commonly used collections are src-all, and ports-all. The other collections are used only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and some mirror sites may not carry all of them.

cvs-all release=cvs

The main FreeBSD CVS repository, including the cryptography code.

distrib release=cvs

Files related to the distribution and mirroring of FreeBSD.

doc-all release=cvs

Sources for the FreeBSD Handbook and other documentation. This does not include files for the FreeBSD web site.

ports-all release=cvs

The FreeBSD Ports Collection.

Important: If you do not want to update the whole of ports-all (the whole ports tree), but use one of the subcollections listed below, make sure that you always update the ports-base subcollection! Whenever something changes in the ports build infrastructure represented by ports-base, it is virtually certain that those changes will be used by ``real'' ports real soon. Thus, if you only update the ``real'' ports and they use some of the new features, there is a very high chance that their build will fail with some mysterious error message. The very first thing to do in this case is to make sure that your ports-base subcollection is up to date.

ports-archivers release=cvs

Archiving tools.

ports-astro release=cvs

Astronomical ports.

ports-audio release=cvs

Sound support.

ports-base release=cvs

The Ports Collection build infrastructure - various files located in the Mk/ and Tools/ subdirectories of /usr/ports.

Note: Please see the important warning above: you should always update this subcollection, whenever you update any part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection!

ports-benchmarks release=cvs

Benchmarks.

ports-biology release=cvs

Biology.

ports-cad release=cvs

Computer aided design tools.

ports-chinese release=cvs

Chinese language support.

ports-comms release=cvs

Communication software.

ports-converters release=cvs

character code converters.

ports-databases release=cvs

Databases.

ports-deskutils release=cvs

Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented.

ports-devel release=cvs

Development utilities.

ports-dns release=cvs

DNS related software.

ports-editors release=cvs

Editors.

ports-emulators release=cvs

Emulators for other operating systems.

ports-finance release=cvs

Monetary, financial and related applications.

ports-ftp release=cvs

FTP client and server utilities.

ports-games release=cvs

Games.

ports-german release=cvs

German language support.

ports-graphics release=cvs

Graphics utilities.

ports-hungarian release=cvs

Hungarian language support.

ports-irc release=cvs

Internet Relay Chat utilities.

ports-japanese release=cvs

Japanese language support.

ports-java release=cvs

Java utilities.

ports-korean release=cvs

Korean language support.

ports-lang release=cvs

Programming languages.

ports-mail release=cvs

Mail software.

ports-math release=cvs

Numerical computation software.

ports-mbone release=cvs

MBone applications.

ports-misc release=cvs

Miscellaneous utilities.

ports-multimedia release=cvs

Multimedia software.

ports-net release=cvs

Networking software.

ports-news release=cvs

USENET news software.

ports-palm release=cvs

Software support for Palm™ series.

ports-polish release=cvs

Polish language support.

ports-portuguese release=cvs

Portuguese language support.

ports-print release=cvs

Printing software.

ports-russian release=cvs

Russian language support.

ports-security release=cvs

Security utilities.

ports-shells release=cvs

Command line shells.

ports-sysutils release=cvs

System utilities.

ports-textproc release=cvs

text processing utilities (does not include desktop publishing).

ports-vietnamese release=cvs

Vietnamese language support.

ports-www release=cvs

Software related to the World Wide Web.

ports-x11 release=cvs

Ports to support the X window system.

ports-x11-clocks release=cvs

X11 clocks.

ports-x11-fm release=cvs

X11 file managers.

ports-x11-fonts release=cvs

X11 fonts and font utilities.

ports-x11-toolkits release=cvs

X11 toolkits.

ports-x11-servers

X11 servers.

ports-x11-wm

X11 window managers.

src-all release=cvs

The main FreeBSD sources, including the cryptography code.

src-base release=cvs

Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/src.

src-bin release=cvs

User utilities that may be needed in single-user mode (/usr/src/bin).

src-contrib release=cvs

Utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/contrib).

src-crypto release=cvs

Cryptography utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/crypto).

src-eBones release=cvs

Kerberos and DES (/usr/src/eBones). Not used in current releases of FreeBSD.

src-etc release=cvs

System configuration files (/usr/src/etc).

src-games release=cvs

Games (/usr/src/games).

src-gnu release=cvs

Utilities covered by the GNU Public License (/usr/src/gnu).

src-include release=cvs

Header files (/usr/src/include).

src-kerberos5 release=cvs

Kerberos5 security package (/usr/src/kerberos5).

src-kerberosIV release=cvs

KerberosIV security package (/usr/src/kerberosIV).

src-lib release=cvs

Libraries (/usr/src/lib).

src-libexec release=cvs

System programs normally executed by other programs (/usr/src/libexec).

src-release release=cvs

Files required to produce a FreeBSD release (/usr/src/release).

src-sbin release=cvs

System utilities for single-user mode (/usr/src/sbin).

src-secure release=cvs

Cryptographic libraries and commands (/usr/src/secure).

src-share release=cvs

Files that can be shared across multiple systems (/usr/src/share).

src-sys release=cvs

The kernel (/usr/src/sys).

src-sys-crypto release=cvs

Kernel cryptography code (/usr/src/sys/crypto).

src-tools release=cvs

Various tools for the maintenance of FreeBSD (/usr/src/tools).

src-usrbin release=cvs

User utilities (/usr/src/usr.bin).

src-usrsbin release=cvs

System utilities (/usr/src/usr.sbin).

www release=cvs

The sources for the FreeBSD WWW site.

distrib release=self

The CVSup server's own configuration files. Used by CVSup mirror sites.

gnats release=current

The GNATS bug-tracking database.

mail-archive release=current

FreeBSD mailing list archive.

www release=current

The pre-processed FreeBSD WWW site files (not the source files). Used by WWW mirror sites.

A.5.6. For More Information

For the CVSup FAQ and other information about CVSup, see The CVSup Home Page.

Most FreeBSD-related discussion of CVSup takes place on the FreeBSD technical discussions 邮件列表. New versions of the software are announced there, as well as on the FreeBSD announcements 邮件列表.

Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author of the program at .

A.5.7. CVSup Sites

CVSup servers for FreeBSD are running at the following sites:

中央服务器, 主要镜像站点, Costa Rica, Thailand, 中国台湾, 中国大陆, 丹麦, 乌克兰, 俄罗斯, 冰岛, 加拿大, 匈牙利, 南非, 土耳其, 圣马力诺, 奥地利, 巴西, 希腊, 德国, 意大利, 拉脱维亚, 挪威, 捷克共和国, 斯洛伐克共和国, 斯洛文尼亚, 新加坡, 新西兰, 日本, 法国, 波兰, 澳大利亚, 爱尔兰, 爱沙尼亚, 瑞典, 瑞士, 科威特, 罗马尼亚, 美国, 芬兰, 英国, 荷兰, 菲律宾, 葡萄牙, 西班牙, 阿根廷, 韩国.

( UTC 更新)

中央服务器

  • cvsup.FreeBSD.org

主要镜像站点

  • cvsup1.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup7.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup8.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup9.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup10.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup11.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup12.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup13.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup14.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup15.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup16.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup18.FreeBSD.org

Costa Rica

  • cvsup1.cr.FreeBSD.org

Thailand

  • cvsup.th.FreeBSD.org

中国台湾

  • cvsup.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup7.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup8.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup9.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup10.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup11.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup12.tw.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup13.tw.FreeBSD.org

中国大陆

  • cvsup.cn.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.cn.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.cn.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.cn.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.cn.FreeBSD.org

丹麦

  • cvsup.dk.FreeBSD.org

乌克兰

  • cvsup2.ua.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.ua.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.ua.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.ua.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.ua.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup7.ua.FreeBSD.org

俄罗斯

  • cvsup.ru.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.ru.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.ru.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.ru.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.ru.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.ru.FreeBSD.org

冰岛

  • cvsup.is.FreeBSD.org

加拿大

  • cvsup.ca.FreeBSD.org

匈牙利

  • cvsup.hu.FreeBSD.org

南非

  • cvsup.za.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.za.FreeBSD.org

土耳其

  • cvsup.tr.FreeBSD.org

圣马力诺

  • cvsup.sm.FreeBSD.org

奥地利

  • cvsup.at.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.at.FreeBSD.org

巴西

  • cvsup.br.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.br.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.br.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.br.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.br.FreeBSD.org

希腊

  • cvsup.gr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.gr.FreeBSD.org

德国

  • cvsup.de.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.de.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.de.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.de.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.de.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.de.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup7.de.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup8.de.FreeBSD.org

意大利

  • cvsup.it.FreeBSD.org

拉脱维亚

  • cvsup.lv.FreeBSD.org

挪威

  • cvsup.no.FreeBSD.org

捷克共和国

  • cvsup.cz.FreeBSD.org

斯洛伐克共和国

  • cvsup.sk.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.sk.FreeBSD.org

斯洛文尼亚

  • cvsup.si.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.si.FreeBSD.org

新加坡

  • cvsup.sg.FreeBSD.org

新西兰

  • cvsup.nz.FreeBSD.org

日本

  • cvsup.jp.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.jp.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.jp.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.jp.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.jp.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.jp.FreeBSD.org

法国

  • cvsup.fr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.fr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.fr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.fr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.fr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup8.fr.FreeBSD.org

波兰

  • cvsup.pl.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.pl.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.pl.FreeBSD.org

澳大利亚

  • cvsup.au.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.au.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.au.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.au.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.au.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.au.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup7.au.FreeBSD.org

爱尔兰

  • cvsup.ie.FreeBSD.org

爱沙尼亚

  • cvsup.ee.FreeBSD.org

瑞典

  • cvsup.se.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.se.FreeBSD.org

瑞士

  • cvsup.ch.FreeBSD.org

科威特

  • cvsup1.kw.FreeBSD.org

罗马尼亚

  • cvsup.ro.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup1.ro.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.ro.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.ro.FreeBSD.org

美国

  • cvsup1.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup6.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup7.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup8.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup9.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup10.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup11.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup12.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup13.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup14.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup15.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup16.us.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup18.us.FreeBSD.org

芬兰

  • cvsup.fi.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.fi.FreeBSD.org

英国

  • cvsup.uk.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.uk.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.uk.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.uk.FreeBSD.org

荷兰

  • cvsup.nl.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.nl.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.nl.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup4.nl.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup5.nl.FreeBSD.org

菲律宾

  • cvsup1.ph.FreeBSD.org

葡萄牙

  • cvsup.pt.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.pt.FreeBSD.org

西班牙

  • cvsup.es.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.es.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.es.FreeBSD.org

阿根廷

  • cvsup.ar.FreeBSD.org

韩国

  • cvsup.kr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup2.kr.FreeBSD.org

  • cvsup3.kr.FreeBSD.org

A.6. CVS Tags

When obtaining or updating sources from cvs and CVSup a revision tag (reference to a date in time) must be specified.

A revision tag refers to either a particular line of FreeBSD development, or a specific point in time. The first type are called ``branch tags'', the second type are called ``release tags''.

A.6.1. Branch Tags

All of these, with the exception of HEAD (which is always a valid tag), only apply to the src/ tree. The ports/, doc/, and www/ trees are not branched.

HEAD

Symbolic name for the main line, or FreeBSD-CURRENT. Also the default when no revision is specified.

In CVSup, this tag is represented by a . (not punctuation, but a literal . character).

Note: In CVS, this is the default when no revision tag is specified. It is usually not a good idea to checkout or update to CURRENT sources on a STABLE machine, unless that is your intent.

RELENG_5_2

The release branch for FreeBSD-5.2, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_5_1

The release branch for FreeBSD-5.1, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_5_0

The release branch for FreeBSD-5.0, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_4

The line of development for FreeBSD-4.X, also known as FreeBSD-STABLE.

RELENG_4_9

The release branch for FreeBSD-4.9, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_4_8

The release branch for FreeBSD-4.8, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_4_7

The release branch for FreeBSD-4.7, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_4_6

The release branch for FreeBSD-4.6 and FreeBSD-4.6.2, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_4_5

The release branch for FreeBSD-4.5, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_4_4

The release branch for FreeBSD-4.4, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_4_3

The release branch for FreeBSD-4.3, used only for security advisories and other seriously critical fixes.

RELENG_3

The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known as 3.X-STABLE.

RELENG_2_2

The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known as 2.2-STABLE. This branch is mostly obsolete.

A.6.2. Release Tags

These tags correspond to the FreeBSD src/ tree (and ports/, doc/, and www/ trees) at a specific point in time, when a particular version of FreeBSD was released.

RELENG_4_9_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.9

RELENG_5_1_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 5.1

RELENG_4_8_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.8

RELENG_5_0_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 5.0

RELENG_4_7_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.7

RELENG_4_6_2_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.6.2

RELENG_4_6_1_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.6.1

RELENG_4_6_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.6

RELENG_4_5_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.5

RELENG_4_4_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.4

RELENG_4_3_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.3

RELENG_4_2_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.2

RELENG_4_1_1_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.1.1

RELENG_4_1_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.1

RELENG_4_0_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD 4.0

RELENG_3_5_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD-3.5

RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD-3.4

RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD-3.3

RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD-3.2

RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD-3.1

RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD-3.0

RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE

FreeBSD-2.2.8

RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE

FreeBSD-2.2.7

RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE

FreeBSD-2.2.6

RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE

FreeBSD-2.2.5

RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE

FreeBSD-2.2.2

RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE

FreeBSD-2.2.1

RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE

FreeBSD-2.2.0

A.7. AFS Sites

AFS servers for FreeBSD are running at the following sites:

Sweden

The path to the files are: /afs/stacken.kth.se/ftp/pub/FreeBSD/

stacken.kth.se         # Stacken Computer Club, KTH, Sweden
130.237.234.43         #hot.stacken.kth.se
130.237.237.230        #fishburger.stacken.kth.se
130.237.234.3          #milko.stacken.kth.se

Maintainer

A.8. rsync Sites

The following sites make FreeBSD available through the rsync protocol. The rsync utility works in much the same way as the rcp(1) command, but has more options and uses the rsync remote-update protocol which transfers only the differences between two sets of files, thus greatly speeding up the synchronization over the network. This is most useful if you are a mirror site for the FreeBSD FTP server, or the CVS repository. The rsync suite is available for many operating systems, on FreeBSD, see the net/rsync port or use the package.

Czech Republic

rsync://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/

Available collections:

  • ftp: A partial mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server.

  • FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server.

Germany

rsync://grappa.unix-ag.uni-kl.de/

Available collections:

  • freebsd-cvs: The full FreeBSD CVS repository.

This machine also mirrors the CVS repositories of the NetBSD and the OpenBSD projects, among others.

Netherlands

rsync://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/

Available collections:

  • vol/3/freebsd-core: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server.

United Kingdom

rsync://rsync.mirror.ac.uk/

Available collections:

  • ftp.FreeBSD.org: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server.

United States of America

rsync://ftp-master.FreeBSD.org/

This server may only be used by FreeBSD primary mirror sites.

Available collections:

  • FreeBSD: The master archive of the FreeBSD FTP server.

  • acl: The FreeBSD master ACL list.

rsync://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/

Available collections:

  • FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP server.

Appendix B. 参考文献

尽管手册页能够提供对于 FreeBSD 操作系统最为权威的参考资料，它们有时却不能告诉我们如何让整个系统很好地运转起来。 因此，一本关于 UNIX 系统管理的好书，以及一份好的用户手册是不可或缺的。

B.1. 关于 FreeBSD 的专业书籍与杂志

非英文的书籍和杂志：

英文版的书籍和杂志：

B.2. 用户指南

  • Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-075-9

  • Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-076-7

  • UNIX in a Nutshell. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1990. ISBN 093717520X

  • Mui, Linda. What You Need To Know When You Can't Find Your UNIX System Administrator. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-104-6

  • Ohio State University 编写了一份 UNIX 介绍性课程 ，并提供在线的 HTML 和 PostScript 版本。

  • 这份文档的意大利文 翻译 是 FreeBSD Italian Documentation Project 的一部分。

  • Jpman Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group. FreeBSD User's Reference Manual (日文译本). Mainichi Communications Inc., 1998. ISBN4-8399-0088-4 P3800E.

  • Edinburgh University has written an Online Guide for newcomers to the UNIX environment.

B.3. 管理员指南

  • Albitz, Paul and Liu, Cricket. DNS and BIND, 4th Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 2001. ISBN 1-59600-158-4

  • Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD System Manager's Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-080-5

  • Costales, Brian, et al. Sendmail, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-222-0

  • Frisch, Æleen. Essential System Administration, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-127-5

  • Hunt, Craig. TCP/IP Network Administration, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-322-7

  • Nemeth, Evi. UNIX System Administration Handbook. 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall, 2000. ISBN 0-13-020601-6

  • Stern, Hal Managing NFS and NIS O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-937175-75-7

  • Jpman Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group. FreeBSD System Administrator's Manual (日文译本). Mainichi Communications Inc., 1998. ISBN4-8399-0109-0 P3300E.

  • Dreyfus, Emmanuel. Cahiers de l'Admin: BSD (in French), Eyrolles, 2003. ISBN 2-212-11244-0

B.4. 开发指南

  • Asente, Paul, Converse, Diana, and Swick, Ralph. X Window System Toolkit. Digital Press, 1998. ISBN 1-55558-178-1

  • Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-078-3

  • Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-079-1

  • Harbison, Samuel P. and Steele, Guy L. Jr. C: A Reference Manual. 4rd ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0-13-326224-3

  • Kernighan, Brian and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language.. PTR Prentice Hall, 1988. ISBN 0-13-110362-9

  • Lehey, Greg. Porting UNIX Software. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-126-7

  • Plauger, P. J. The Standard C Library. Prentice Hall, 1992. ISBN 0-13-131509-9

  • Spinellis, Diomidis. Code Reading: The Open Source Perspective. Addison-Wesley, 2003. ISBN 0-201-79940-5

  • Stevens, W. Richard. Advanced Programming in the UNIX Environment. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1992. ISBN 0-201-56317-7

  • Stevens, W. Richard. UNIX Network Programming. 2nd Ed, PTR Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0-13-490012-X

  • Wells, Bill. ``Writing Serial Drivers for UNIX''. Dr. Dobb's Journal. 19(15), December 1994. pp68-71, 97-99.

B.5. 操作系统原理

  • Andleigh, Prabhat K. UNIX System Architecture. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1990. ISBN 0-13-949843-5

  • Jolitz, William. ``Porting UNIX to the 386''. Dr. Dobb's Journal. 1991年1月 - 1992年6月

  • Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J Karels and John Quarterman The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1989. ISBN 0-201-06196-1

  • Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System: Answer Book. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1991. ISBN 0-201-54629-9

  • McKusick, Marshall Kirk, Keith Bostic, Michael J Karels, and John Quarterman. The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-54979-4

    (这本书的第二章的 在线版本 是 FreeBSD Documentation Project的一部分, 此外，第九章可以在 这里找到.)

  • Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63346-9

  • Schimmel, Curt. Unix Systems for Modern Architectures. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1994. ISBN 0-201-63338-8

  • Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP and the UNIX Domain Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63495-3

  • Vahalia, Uresh. UNIX Internals -- The New Frontiers. Prentice Hall, 1996. ISBN 0-13-101908-2

  • Wright, Gary R. and W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63354-X

B.6. 信息安全方面的参考文献

  • Cheswick, William R. and Steven M. Bellovin. Firewalls and Internet Security: Repelling the Wily Hacker. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63357-4

  • Garfinkel, Simson and Gene Spafford. Practical UNIX & Internet Security. 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1996. ISBN 1-56592-148-8

  • Garfinkel, Simson. PGP Pretty Good Privacy O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-098-8

B.7. 硬件参考

  • Anderson, Don and Tom Shanley. Pentium Processor System Architecture. 2nd Ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40992-5

  • Ferraro, Richard F. Programmer's Guide to the EGA, VGA, and Super VGA Cards. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-62490-7

  • Intel 公司在他们的 开发人员网站上, 提供了关于他们的 CPU，芯片组，以及标准的文档。多数是PDF文件.

  • Shanley, Tom. 80486 System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40994-1

  • Shanley, Tom. ISA System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40996-8

  • Shanley, Tom. PCI System Architecture. 4th ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1999. ISBN 0-201-30974-2

  • Van Gilluwe, Frank. The Undocumented PC, 2nd Ed. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1996. ISBN 0-201-47950-8

  • Messmer, Hans-Peter. The Indispensable PC Hardware Book, 4th Ed. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 2002. ISBN 0-201-59616-4

B.8. UNIX 历史

  • Lion, John Lion's Commentary on UNIX, 6th Ed. With Source Code. ITP Media Group, 1996. ISBN 1573980137

  • Raymond, Eric S. The New Hacker's Dictionary, 3rd edition. MIT Press, 1996. ISBN 0-262-68092-0. 它也被称作 Jargon File

  • Salus, Peter H. A quarter century of UNIX. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1994. ISBN 0-201-54777-5

  • Simon Garfinkel, Daniel Weise, Steven Strassmann. The UNIX-HATERS Handbook. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56884-203-1

  • Don Libes, Sandy Ressler Life with UNIX -- special edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-13-536657-7

  • BSD 族谱. http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree 或在任何一台较新的 FreeBSD 机器中的 /usr/share/misc/bsd-family-tree 。

  • The BSD Release Announcements collection. 1997. http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/ftp/releases/

  • Networked Computer Science Technical Reports Library. http://www.ncstrl.org/

  • Old BSD releases from the Computer Systems Research group (CSRG). http://www.mckusick.com/csrg/: The 4CD set covers all BSD versions from 1BSD to 4.4BSD and 4.4BSD-Lite2 (but not 2.11BSD, unfortunately). As well, the last disk holds the final sources plus the SCCS files.

B.9. 各种期刊

  • The C/C++ Users Journal. R&D Publications Inc. ISSN 1075-2838

  • Sys Admin -- The Journal for UNIX System Administrators Miller Freeman, Inc., ISSN 1061-2688

  • freeX -- Das Magazin für Linux - BSD - UNIX (德文) Computer- und Literaturverlag GmbH, ISSN 1436-7033

Appendix C. Resources on the Internet

The rapid pace of FreeBSD progress makes print media impractical as a means of following the latest developments. Electronic resources are the best, if not often the only, way stay informed of the latest advances. Since FreeBSD is a volunteer effort, the user community itself also generally serves as a ``technical support department'' of sorts, with electronic mail and USENET news being the most effective way of reaching that community.

The most important points of contact with the FreeBSD user community are outlined below. If you are aware of other resources not mentioned here, please send them to the FreeBSD documentation project 邮件列表 so that they may also be included.

C.1. Mailing Lists

Though many of the FreeBSD development members read USENET, we cannot always guarantee that we will get to your questions in a timely fashion (or at all) if you post them only to one of the comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.* groups. By addressing your questions to the appropriate mailing list you will reach both us and a concentrated FreeBSD audience, invariably assuring a better (or at least faster) response.

The charters for the various lists are given at the bottom of this document. Please read the charter before joining or sending mail to any list. Most of our list subscribers now receive many hundreds of FreeBSD related messages every day, and by setting down charters and rules for proper use we are striving to keep the signal-to-noise ratio of the lists high. To do less would see the mailing lists ultimately fail as an effective communications medium for the project.

Archives are kept for all of the mailing lists and can be searched using the FreeBSD World Wide Web server. The keyword searchable archive offers an excellent way of finding answers to frequently asked questions and should be consulted before posting a question.

C.1.1. List Summary

General lists: The following are general lists which anyone is free (and encouraged) to join:

List Purpose
cvs-all Changes made to the FreeBSD source tree
freebsd-advocacy FreeBSD Evangelism
freebsd-announce Important events and project milestones
freebsd-arch Architecture and design discussions
freebsd-bugbusters Discussions pertaining to the maintenance of the FreeBSD problem report database and related tools
freebsd-bugs Bug reports
freebsd-chat Non-technical items related to the FreeBSD community
freebsd-config Development of FreeBSD installation and configuration tools
freebsd-current Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-CURRENT
freebsd-isp Issues for Internet Service Providers using FreeBSD
freebsd-jobs FreeBSD employment and consulting opportunities
freebsd-newbies New FreeBSD users activities and discussions
freebsd-policy FreeBSD Core team policy decisions. Low volume, and read-only
freebsd-questions User questions and technical support
freebsd-security-notifications Security notifications
freebsd-stable Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-STABLE
freebsd-test Where to send your test messages instead of one of the actual lists

Technical lists: The following lists are for technical discussion. You should read the charter for each list carefully before joining or sending mail to one as there are firm guidelines for their use and content.

List Purpose
freebsd-afs Porting AFS to FreeBSD
freebsd-aic7xxx Developing drivers for the Adaptec AIC 7xxx
freebsd-alpha Porting FreeBSD to the Alpha
freebsd-amd64 Porting FreeBSD to AMD64 systems
freebsd-arm Porting FreeBSD to ARM® processors
freebsd-atm Using ATM networking with FreeBSD
freebsd-audit Source code audit project
freebsd-binup Design and development of the binary update system
freebsd-cluster Using FreeBSD in a clustered environment
freebsd-cvsweb CVSweb maintenance
freebsd-database Discussing database use and development under FreeBSD
freebsd-doc Creating FreeBSD related documents
freebsd-emulation Emulation of other systems such as Linux/DOS/Windows
freebsd-firewire FreeBSD FireWire® (iLink, IEEE 1394) technical discussion
freebsd-fs File systems
freebsd-gnome Porting GNOME and GNOME applications
freebsd-hackers General technical discussion
freebsd-hardware General discussion of hardware for running FreeBSD
freebsd-i18n FreeBSD Internationalization
freebsd-ia32 FreeBSD on the IA-32 (Intel x86) platform
freebsd-ia64 Porting FreeBSD to Intel's upcoming IA64 systems
freebsd-ipfw Technical discussion concerning the redesign of the IP firewall code
freebsd-isdn ISDN developers
freebsd-java Java developers and people porting JDKs to FreeBSD
freebsd-kde Porting KDE and KDE applications
freebsd-lfs Porting LFS to FreeBSD
freebsd-libh The second generation installation and package system
freebsd-mips Porting FreeBSD to MIPS®
freebsd-mobile Discussions about mobile computing
freebsd-mozilla Porting Mozilla to FreeBSD
freebsd-multimedia Multimedia applications
freebsd-new-bus Technical discussions about bus architecture
freebsd-net Networking discussion and TCP/IP source code
freebsd-openoffice Porting OpenOffice.org and StarOffice to FreeBSD
freebsd-performance Performance tuning questions for high performance/load installations
freebsd-platforms Concerning ports to non-Intel architecture platforms
freebsd-ports Discussion of the ports collection
freebsd-ports-bugs Discussion of the ports bugs/PRs
freebsd-ppc Porting FreeBSD to the PowerPC®
freebsd-qa Discussion of Quality Assurance, usually pending a release
freebsd-realtime Development of realtime extensions to FreeBSD
freebsd-scsi The SCSI subsystem
freebsd-security Security issues affecting FreeBSD
freebsd-small Using FreeBSD in embedded applications
freebsd-smp Design discussions for [A]Symmetric MultiProcessing
freebsd-sparc64 Porting FreeBSD to Sparc based systems
freebsd-standards FreeBSD's conformance to the C99 and the POSIX standards
freebsd-threads Threading in FreeBSD
freebsd-testing FreeBSD Performance and Stability Tests
freebsd-tokenring Support Token Ring in FreeBSD

Limited lists: The following lists are for more specialized (and demanding) audiences and are probably not of interest to the general public. It is also a good idea to establish a presence in the technical lists before joining one of these limited lists so that you will understand the communications etiquette involved.

List Purpose
freebsd-hubs People running mirror sites (infrastructural support)
freebsd-user-groups User group coordination
freebsd-vendors Vendors pre-release coordination
freebsd-www Maintainers of www.FreeBSD.org

Digest lists: All of the above lists are available in a digest format. Once subscribed to a list, you can change your digest options in your account options section.

CVS lists: The following lists are for people interested in seeing the log messages for changes to various areas of the source tree. They are Read-Only lists and should not have mail sent to them.

List Source area Area Description (source for)
cvs-all /usr/(CVSROOT|doc|ports|projects|src) All changes to any place in the tree (superset of other cvs commit lists)
cvs-doc /usr/doc All changes to the doc tree
cvs-ports /usr/ports All changes to the ports tree
cvs-projects /usr/projects All changes to the projects tree
cvs-src /usr/src All changes to the src tree

C.1.2. How to Subscribe

To subscribe to a list, click on the list name above or go to http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo and click on the list that you are interested in. The list page should contain all of the necessary subscription instructions.

To actually post to a given list you simply send mail to <listname@FreeBSD.org>. It will then be redistributed to mailing list members world-wide.

To unsubscribe yourself from a list, click on the URL found at the bottom of every email received from the list. It is also possible to send an email to freebsd-[listname]-unsubscribe@FreeBSD.org to unsubscribe yourself.

Again, we would like to request that you keep discussion in the technical mailing lists on a technical track. If you are only interested in important announcements then it is suggested that you join the FreeBSD announcements 邮件列表, which is intended only for infrequent traffic.

C.1.3. List Charters

All FreeBSD mailing lists have certain basic rules which must be adhered to by anyone using them. Failure to comply with these guidelines will result in two (2) written warnings from the FreeBSD Postmaster , after which, on a third offense, the poster will removed from all FreeBSD mailing lists and filtered from further posting to them. We regret that such rules and measures are necessary at all, but today's Internet is a pretty harsh environment, it would seem, and many fail to appreciate just how fragile some of its mechanisms are.

Rules of the road:

  • The topic of any posting should adhere to the basic charter of the list it is posted to, e.g. if the list is about technical issues then your posting should contain technical discussion. Ongoing irrelevant chatter or flaming only detracts from the value of the mailing list for everyone on it and will not be tolerated. For free-form discussion on no particular topic, the FreeBSD chat 邮件列表 is freely available and should be used instead.

  • No posting should be made to more than 2 mailing lists, and only to 2 when a clear and obvious need to post to both lists exists. For most lists, there is already a great deal of subscriber overlap and except for the most esoteric mixes (say ``-stable & -scsi''), there really is no reason to post to more than one list at a time. If a message is sent to you in such a way that multiple mailing lists appear on the Cc line then the Cc line should also be trimmed before sending it out again. You are still responsible for your own cross-postings, no matter who the originator might have been.

  • Personal attacks and profanity (in the context of an argument) are not allowed, and that includes users and developers alike. Gross breaches of netiquette, like excerpting or reposting private mail when permission to do so was not and would not be forthcoming, are frowned upon but not specifically enforced. However, there are also very few cases where such content would fit within the charter of a list and it would therefore probably rate a warning (or ban) on that basis alone.

  • Advertising of non-FreeBSD related products or services is strictly prohibited and will result in an immediate ban if it is clear that the offender is advertising by spam.

Individual list charters:

freebsd-afs

Andrew File System

This list is for discussion on porting and using AFS from CMU/Transarc

freebsd-announce

Important events / milestones

This is the mailing list for people interested only in occasional announcements of significant FreeBSD events. This includes announcements about snapshots and other releases. It contains announcements of new FreeBSD capabilities. It may contain calls for volunteers etc. This is a low volume, strictly moderated mailing list.

freebsd-arch

Architecture and design discussions

This list is for discussion of the FreeBSD architecture. Messages will mostly be kept strictly technical in nature. Examples of suitable topics are:

  • How to re-vamp the build system to have several customized builds running at the same time.

  • What needs to be fixed with VFS to make Heidemann layers work.

  • How do we change the device driver interface to be able to use the same drivers cleanly on many buses and architectures.

  • How to write a network driver.

freebsd-audit

Source code audit project

This is the mailing list for the FreeBSD source code audit project. Although this was originally intended for security-related changes, its charter has been expanded to review any code changes.

This list is very heavy on patches, and is probably of no interest to the average FreeBSD user. Security discussions not related to a particular code change are held on freebsd-security. Conversely, all developers are encouraged to send their patches here for review, especially if they touch a part of the system where a bug may adversely affect the integrity of the system.

freebsd-binup

FreeBSD Binary Update Project

This list exists to provide discussion for the binary update system, or binup. Design issues, implementation details, patches, bug reports, status reports, feature requests, commit logs, and all other things related to binup are fair game.

freebsd-bugbusters

Coordination of the Problem Report handling effort

The purpose of this list is to serve as a coordination and discussion forum for the Bugmeister, his Bugbusters, and any other parties who have a genuine interest in the PR database. This list is not for discussions about specific bugs, patches or PRs.

freebsd-bugs

Bug reports

This is the mailing list for reporting bugs in FreeBSD. Whenever possible, bugs should be submitted using the send-pr(1) command or the WEB interface to it.

freebsd-chat

Non technical items related to the FreeBSD community

This list contains the overflow from the other lists about non-technical, social information. It includes discussion about whether Jordan looks like a toon ferret or not, whether or not to type in capitals, who is drinking too much coffee, where the best beer is brewed, who is brewing beer in their basement, and so on. Occasional announcements of important events (such as upcoming parties, weddings, births, new jobs, etc) can be made to the technical lists, but the follow ups should be directed to this -chat list.

freebsd-core

FreeBSD core team

This is an internal mailing list for use by the core members. Messages can be sent to it when a serious FreeBSD-related matter requires arbitration or high-level scrutiny.

freebsd-current

Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-CURRENT

This is the mailing list for users of FreeBSD-CURRENT. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -CURRENT that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be taken to remain -CURRENT. Anyone running ``CURRENT'' must subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-cvsweb

FreeBSD CVSweb Project

Technical discussions about use, development and maintenance of FreeBSD-CVSweb.

freebsd-doc

Documentation project

This mailing list is for the discussion of issues and projects related to the creation of documentation for FreeBSD. The members of this mailing list are collectively referred to as ``The FreeBSD Documentation Project''. It is an open list; feel free to join and contribute!

freebsd-firewire

FireWire (iLink, IEEE 1394)

This is a mailing list for discussion of the design and implementation of a FireWire (aka IEEE 1394 aka iLink) subsystem for FreeBSD. Relevant topics specifically include the standards, bus devices and their protocols, adapter boards/cards/chips sets, and the architecture and implementation of code for their proper support.

freebsd-fs

File systems

Discussions concerning FreeBSD file systems. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-gnome

GNOME

Discussions concerning The GNOME Desktop Environment for FreeBSD systems. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-ipfw

IP Firewall

This is the forum for technical discussions concerning the redesign of the IP firewall code in FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-ia64

Porting FreeBSD to IA64

This is a technical mailing list for individuals actively working on porting FreeBSD to the IA-64 platform from Intel, to bring up problems or discuss alternative solutions. Individuals interested in following the technical discussion are also welcome.

freebsd-isdn

ISDN Communications

This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of ISDN support for FreeBSD.

freebsd-java

Java Development

This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of significant Java applications for FreeBSD and the porting and maintenance of JDKs.

freebsd-kde

KDE

Discussions concerning KDE on FreeBSD systems. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-hackers

Technical discussions

This is a forum for technical discussions related to FreeBSD. This is the primary technical mailing list. It is for individuals actively working on FreeBSD, to bring up problems or discuss alternative solutions. Individuals interested in following the technical discussion are also welcome. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-hardware

General discussion of FreeBSD hardware

General discussion about the types of hardware that FreeBSD runs on, various problems and suggestions concerning what to buy or avoid.

freebsd-hubs

Mirror sites

Announcements and discussion for people who run FreeBSD mirror sites.

freebsd-isp

Issues for Internet Service Providers

This mailing list is for discussing topics relevant to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) using FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-newbies

Newbies activities discussion

We cover any of the activities of newbies that are not already dealt with elsewhere, including: independent learning and problem solving techniques, finding and using resources and asking for help elsewhere, how to use mailing lists and which lists to use, general chat, making mistakes, boasting, sharing ideas, stories, moral (but not technical) support, and taking an active part in the FreeBSD community. We take our problems and support questions to freebsd-questions, and use freebsd-newbies to meet others who are doing the same things that we do as newbies.

freebsd-openoffice

OpenOffice.org

Discussions concerning the porting and maintenance of OpenOffice.org and StarOffice.

freebsd-performance

Discussions about tuning or speeding up FreeBSD

This mailing list exists to provide a place for hackers, administrators, and/or concerned parties to discuss performance related topics pertaining to FreeBSD. Acceptable topics includes talking about FreeBSD installations that are either under high load, are experiencing performance problems, or are pushing the limits of FreeBSD. Concerned parties that are willing to work toward improving the performance of FreeBSD are highly encouraged to subscribe to this list. This is a highly technical list ideally suited for experienced FreeBSD users, hackers, or administrators interested in keeping FreeBSD fast, robust, and scalable. This list is not a question-and-answer list that replaces reading through documentation, but it is a place to make contributions or inquire about unanswered performance related topics.

freebsd-platforms

Porting to Non Intel platforms

Cross-platform FreeBSD issues, general discussion and proposals for non Intel FreeBSD ports. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-policy

Core team policy decisions

This is a low volume, read-only mailing list for FreeBSD Core Team Policy decisions.

freebsd-ports

Discussion of ``ports''

Discussions concerning FreeBSD's ``ports collection'' (/usr/ports), ports infrastructure, and general ports coordination efforts. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-ports-bugs

Discussion of ``ports'' bugs

Discussions concerning problem reports for FreeBSD's ``ports collection'' (/usr/ports), proposed ports, or modifications to ports. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-questions

User questions

This is the mailing list for questions about FreeBSD. You should not send ``how to'' questions to the technical lists unless you consider the question to be pretty technical.

freebsd-scsi

SCSI subsystem

This is the mailing list for people working on the SCSI subsystem for FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-security

Security issues

FreeBSD computer security issues (DES, Kerberos, known security holes and fixes, etc). This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical discussion is expected. Note that this is not a question-and-answer list, but that contributions (BOTH question AND answer) to the FAQ are welcome.

freebsd-security-notifications

Security Notifications

Notifications of FreeBSD security problems and fixes. This is not a discussion list. The discussion list is FreeBSD-security.

freebsd-small

Using FreeBSD in embedded applications

This list discusses topics related to unusually small and embedded FreeBSD installations. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-stable

Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-STABLE

This is the mailing list for users of FreeBSD-STABLE. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -STABLE that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be taken to remain -STABLE. Anyone running ``STABLE'' should subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected.

freebsd-standards

C99 & POSIX Conformance

This is a forum for technical discussions related to FreeBSD Conformance to the C99 and the POSIX standards.

freebsd-user-groups

User Group Coordination List

This is the mailing list for the coordinators from each of the local area Users Groups to discuss matters with each other and a designated individual from the Core Team. This mail list should be limited to meeting synopsis and coordination of projects that span User Groups.

freebsd-vendors

Vendors

Coordination discussions between The FreeBSD Project and Vendors of software and hardware for FreeBSD.

C.1.4. Filtering on the Mailing Lists

The FreeBSD mailing lists are filtered in multiple ways to avoid the distribution of spam, viruses, and other unwanted emails. The filtering actions described in this section do not include all those used to protect the mailing lists.

Only certain types of attachments are allowed on the mailing lists. All attachments with a MIME content type not found in the list below will be stripped before an email is distributed on the mailing lists.

  • application/octet-stream

  • application/pdf

  • application/pgp-signature

  • application/x-pkcs7-signature

  • message/rfc822

  • multipart/alternative

  • multipart/related

  • multipart/signed

  • text/html

  • text/plain

  • text/x-diff

  • text/x-patch

Note: Some of the mailing lists might allow attachments of other MIME content types, but the above list should be applicable for most of the mailing lists.

If an email contains both an HTML and a plain text version, the HTML version will be removed. If an email contains only an HTML version, it will be converted to plain text.

C.2. Usenet Newsgroups

In addition to two FreeBSD specific newsgroups, there are many others in which FreeBSD is discussed or are otherwise relevant to FreeBSD users. Keyword searchable archives are available for some of these newsgroups from courtesy of Warren Toomey .

C.2.1. BSD Specific Newsgroups

C.2.2. Other UNIX Newsgroups of Interest

C.2.3. X Window System

C.3. World Wide Web Servers

C.4. Email Addresses

The following user groups provide FreeBSD related email addresses for their members. The listed administrator reserves the right to revoke the address if it is abused in any way.

Domain Facilities User Group Administrator
ukug.uk.FreeBSD.org Forwarding only Lee Johnston

C.5. Shell Accounts

The following user groups provide shell accounts for people who are actively supporting the FreeBSD project. The listed administrator reserves the right to cancel the account if it is abused in any way.

Host Access Facilities Administrator
storm.uk.FreeBSD.org SSH only Read-only cvs, personal web space, email Brian Somers
dogma.freebsd-uk.eu.org Telnet/FTP/SSH Email, Web space, Anonymous FTP Lee Johnston

Appendix D. PGP Keys

在一些情况下你可能需要校验一个签名或者发送加密的邮件给官员或者开发者，这里为了方便你而提供了一些密钥。完整的 FreeBSD org 用户密钥可以在 http://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/pgpkeyring.txt 下载。

D.1. 官员

D.1.1. Security Officer Team 

pub  1024D/CA6CDFB2 2002-08-27 FreeBSD Security Officer <security-officer@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = C374 0FC5 69A6 FBB1 4AED  B131 15D6 8804 CA6C DFB2
sub  2048g/A3071809 2002-08-27

pub  1024R/73D288A5 1996-04-22 FreeBSD Security Officer (Deprecated key) <security-officer@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 41 08 4E BB DB 41 60 71  F9 E5 0E 98 73 AF 3F 11
uid                            FreeBSD Security Officer <security-officer@freebsd.org>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.1 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.1.2. Core Team Secretary 

pub  1024R/FF8AE305 2002-01-08 core-secretary@FreeBSD.org
     Key fingerprint = CE EF 8A 48 70 00 B5 A9  55 69 DE 87 E3 9A E1 CD

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.2. 核心团队成员

D.2.1. Warner Losh 

pub  1024R/F6A8F561 1996-01-10 M. Warner Losh <imp@village.org>
     Key fingerprint = D4 31 FD B9 F7 90 17 E8  37 C5 E7 7F CF A6 C1 B9

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.2.2. Jun Kuriyama 

pub  1024D/FE3B59CD 1998-11-23 Jun Kuriyama <kuriyama@imgsrc.co.jp>
     Key fingerprint = 5219 55CE AC84 C296 3A3B  B076 EE3C 4DBB FE3B 59CD
uid                            Jun Kuriyama <kuriyama@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Jun Kuriyama <kuriyama@jp.FreeBSD.org>
sub  2048g/1CF20D27 1998-11-23

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=AoU9
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.2.3. Murray Stokely 

pub  1024D/0E451F7D 2001-02-12 Murray Stokely <murray@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = E2CA 411D DD44 53FD BB4B  3CB5 B4D7 10A2 0E45 1F7D
sub  1024g/965A770C 2001-02-12

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.2.4. Peter Wemm 

pub  1024D/7277717F 2003-12-14 Peter Wemm <peter@wemm.org>
     Key fingerprint = 622B 2282 E92B 3BAB 57D1  A417 1512 AE52 7277 717F
uid                            Peter Wemm <peter@FreeBSD.ORG>
sub  1024g/8B40D9D1 2003-12-14
pub  1024R/D89CE319 1995-04-02 Peter Wemm <peter@netplex.com.au>
     Key fingerprint = 47 05 04 CA 4C EE F8 93  F6 DB 02 92 6D F5 58 8A
uid                            Peter Wemm <peter@perth.dialix.oz.au>
uid                            Peter Wemm <peter@haywire.dialix.com>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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=7AWH
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.2.5. Wes Peters 

pub  1024D/AD10C6C4 2000-10-19 Wes Peters <wes@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 76C4 753C 83FF D982 C57D  3A2A 7387 E292 AD10 C6C4
uid                            Wes Peters <wes@softweyr.com>
sub  1024g/237A5EF9 2000-10-19

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3. 开发者

D.3.1. Will Andrews 

pub  1024D/F81672C5 2000-05-22 Will Andrews <will@c-60.org>
     Key fingerprint = 661F BBF7 9F5D 3D02 C862  5F6C 178E E274 F816 72C5
uid                            Will Andrews (Key for official matters) <will@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Will Andrews <will@physics.purdue.edu>
uid                            Will Andrews <will@puck.firepipe.net>
uid                            Will Andrews <will@csociety.org>
uid                            Will Andrews <will@csociety.ecn.purdue.edu>
uid                            Will Andrews <will@telperion.openpackages.org>
sub  1024g/55472804 2000-05-22

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.2. Mathieu Arnold 

pub  1024D/6CFFBE67 2003-07-21 Mathieu Arnold <mat@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 1A5F 2DBB 56F5 817E 8AFF  51B2 A986 29CC 6CFF BE67
uid                            Mathieu Arnold <m@absolight.net>
uid                            Mathieu Arnold <arn-mat@micronet.fr>
uid                            Mathieu Arnold <mat@mat.cc>
uid                            Mathieu Arnold <arn_mat@club-internet.fr>
uid                            Mathieu Arnold <mat@cpan.org>
uid                            Mathieu Arnold <mathieu.arnold@t-online.fr>
sub  1024g/830CAC4B 2003-07-21 [expires: 2005-01-21]
sub  2048R/A498469E 2004-01-22
sub  2048R/09EB7735 2004-01-22

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.3. Satoshi Asami 

pub  1024R/1E08D889 1997-07-23 Satoshi Asami <asami@cs.berkeley.edu>
     Key fingerprint = EB 3C 68 9E FB 6C EB 3F  DB 2E 0F 10 8F CE 79 CA
uid                            Satoshi Asami <asami@FreeBSD.ORG>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.4. Doug Barton 

pub  1024D/D5B2F0FB 2003-01-16 Doug Barton <DougB@DougBarton.net>
     Key fingerprint = 9DD1 E44C 8660 ADA6 580F  83B6 C886 A42B D5B2 F0FB
uid                            Doug Barton <DougB@FreeBSD.org>
sub  4096g/2DBB3F89 2003-01-16

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.1 (FreeBSD)
Comment: Public key for DougB@{DougBarton.net|FreeBSD.org}

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.5. Anton Berezin 

pub  1024D/7A7BA3C0 2000-05-25 Anton Berezin <tobez@catpipe.net>
     Key fingerprint = CDD8 560C 174B D8E5 0323  83CE 22CA 584C 7A7B A3C0
uid                            Anton Berezin <tobez@tobez.org>
uid                            Anton Berezin <tobez@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/ADC71E87 2000-05-25

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.6. Martin Blapp 

pub  1024D/D300551E 2001-12-20 Martin Blapp <mb@imp.ch>
     Key fingerprint = B434 53FC C87C FE7B 0A18  B84C 8686 EF22 D300 551E
sub  1024g/998281C8 2001-12-20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.7. Hartmut Brandt 

pub  1024D/5920099F 2003-01-29 Hartmut Brandt <brandt@fokus.fraunhofer.de>
     Key fingerprint = F60D 09A0 76B7 31EE 794B  BB91 082F 291D 5920 099F
uid                            Hartmut Brandt <harti@freebsd.org>
sub  1024g/21D30205 2003-01-29

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.1 (FreeBSD)

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=+h/9
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.8. Oliver Braun 

pub  1024D/EF25B1BA 2001-05-06 Oliver Braun <obraun@unsane.org>
     Key fingerprint = 6A3B 042A 732E 17E4 B6E7  3EAF C0B1 6B7D EF25 B1BA
uid                            Oliver Braun <obraun@obraun.net>
uid                            Oliver Braun <obraun@freebsd.org>
uid                            Oliver Braun <obraun@haskell.org>
sub  1024g/09D28582 2001-05-06

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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D.3.9. Jonathan M. Bresler 

pub  1024R/97E638DD 1996-06-05 Jonathan M. Bresler <jmb@Bresler.org>
     Key fingerprint = 31 57 41 56 06 C1 40 13  C5 1C E3 E5 DC 62 0E FB
uid                            Jonathan M. Bresler <jmb@FreeBSD.ORG>
uid                            Jonathan M. Bresler
uid                            Jonathan M. Bresler <Jonathan.Bresler@USi.net>
uid                            Jonathan M. Bresler <jmb@Frb.GOV>

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D.3.10. Christian Brüffer 

pub  1024D/A0ED982D 2002-10-14 Christian Brueffer <chris@unixpages.org>
     Key fingerprint = A5C8 2099 19FF AACA F41B  B29B 6C76 178C A0ED 982D
uid                            Christian Brueffer <brueffer@hitnet.rwth-aachen.de>
uid                            Christian Brueffer <brueffer@FreeBSD.org>
sub  4096g/1DCC100F 2002-10-14

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.11. Wilko Bulte 

pub  1024R/EADEE409 1997-06-16 Wilko Bulte <wilko@tcja.nl>
     Key fingerprint = CF F5 30 59 20 AE 17 69  98 F6 58 F0 4F F0 EB 3E
uid                            Wilko Bulte <wilko@freebsd.org>
uid                            "Wilko Bulte <wilko@freebie.xs4all.nl>"

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.12. Jonathan Chen 

pub  1024D/2539468B 1999-10-11 Jonathan Chen <jon@spock.org>
     Key fingerprint = EE31 CDA1 A105 C8C9 5365  3DB5 C2FC 86AA 2539 468B
uid                            Jonathan Chen <jon@freebsd.org>
uid                            Jonathan Chen <chenj@rpi.edu>
uid                            Jonathan Chen <spock@acm.rpi.edu>
uid                            Jonathan Chen <jon@cs.rpi.edu>
sub  3072g/B81EF1DB 1999-10-11

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.13. Luoqi Chen 

pub  1024D/2926F3BE 2002-02-22 Luoqi Chen <luoqi@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = B470 A815 5917 D9F4 37F3  CE2A 4D75 3BD1 2926 F3BE
uid                            Luoqi Chen <luoqi@bricore.com>
uid                            Luoqi Chen <lchen@onetta.com>
sub  1024g/5446EB72 2002-02-22

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Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.14. Andrey A. Chernov 

pub  1024R/D99D08EB 1992-08-20 Andrey A. Chernov <ache@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 33 03 9F 48 33 7B 4A 15  63 48 88 0A C4 97 FD 49
uid                            Andrey A. Chernov <ache@nagual.pp.ru>

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D.3.15. Sean Chittenden 

pub  1024D/BC84B341 2003-02-15 Sean Chittenden (http://sean.chittenden.org/) <sean@chittenden.org>
     Key fingerprint = 3849 3760 1AFE 7B17 11A0  83A6 DD99 E31F BC84 B341
uid                            Sean Chittenden (http://www.nexadesic.com/) <sean@nexadesic.com>
uid                            Sean Chittenden (http://www.ruby-lang.org/) <sean@ruby-lang.org>
uid                            Sean Chittenden (http://www.FreeBSD.org/) <seanc@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Sean Chittenden (http://www.rubynet.org/) <sean@rubynet.org>
uid                            [jpeg image of size 5617]
sub  4096g/B6991464 2003-02-15 [expires: 2005-02-14]

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.16. Junho CHOI 

pub  1024D/E60260F5 2002-10-14 CHOI Junho (Work) <cjh@wdb.co.kr>
     Key fingerprint = 1369 7374 A45F F41A F3C0  07E3 4A01 C020 E602 60F5
uid                            CHOI Junho (Personal) <cjh@kr.FreeBSD.org>
uid                            CHOI Junho (FreeBSD) <cjh@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/04A4FDD8 2002-10-14

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.0 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.17. Crist J. Clark 

pub  1024D/FE886AD3 2002-01-25 Crist J. Clark <cjclark@jhu.edu>
     Key fingerprint = F04E CCD7 3834 72C2 707F  0A8F 259F 8F4B FE88 6AD3
uid                            Crist J. Clark <cjclark@alum.mit.edu>
uid                            Crist J. Clark <cjc@freebsd.org>
sub  1024g/9B6BAB99 2002-01-25

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.18. Joe Marcus Clarke 

pub  1024D/FE14CF87 2002-03-04 Joe Marcus Clarke (FreeBSD committer address) <marcus@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = CC89 6407 73CC 0286 28E4  AFB9 6F68 8F8A FE14 CF87
uid                            Joe Marcus Clarke <marcus@marcuscom.com>
sub  1024g/B9ACE4D2 2002-03-04

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.19. Nik Clayton 

pub  1024D/2C37E375 2000-11-09 Nik Clayton <nik@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 15B8 3FFC DDB4 34B0 AA5F  94B7 93A8 0764 2C37 E375
uid                            Nik Clayton <nik@slashdot.org>
uid                            Nik Clayton <nik@crf-consulting.co.uk>
uid                            Nik Clayton <nik@ngo.org.uk>
uid                            Nik Clayton <nik@bsdi.com>
sub  1024g/769E298A 2000-11-09

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=9wNg
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.20. Ceri Davies 

pub  1024D/34B7245F 2002-03-08 Ceri Davies <ceri@submonkey.net>
     Key fingerprint = 9C88 EB05 A908 1058 A4AE  9959 A1C7 DCC1 34B7 245F
uid                            Ceri Davies <setantae@submonkey.net>
uid                            Ceri Davies <ceri@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/0C482CBC 2002-03-08

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.7 (FreeBSD)

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=aCeK
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.21. Brooks Davis 

pub  1024D/F2381AD4 2001-02-10 Brooks Davis (The Aerospace Corporation) <brooks@aero.org>
     Key fingerprint = 655D 519C 26A7 82E7 2529  9BF0 5D8E 8BE9 F238 1AD4
uid                            Brooks Davis <brooks@one-eyed-alien.net>
uid                            Brooks Davis <brooks@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Brooks Davis <brooks@aero.org>
sub  2048g/CFDACA7A 2003-01-25 [expires: 2008-01-24]
sub  1024g/42921194 2001-02-10 [expires: 2009-02-08]

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.22. Brian S. Dean 

pub  1024D/723BDEE9 2002-01-23 Brian S. Dean <bsd@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = EF49 7ABE 47ED 91B3 FC3D  7EA5 4D90 2FF7 723B DEE9
sub  1024g/4B02F876 2002-01-23

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=MFJO
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.23. Dima Dorfman 

pub  1024D/69FAE582 2001-09-04 Dima Dorfman <dima@trit.org>
     Key fingerprint = B340 8338 7DA3 4D61 7632  098E 0730 055B 69FA E582
uid                            Dima Dorfman <dima@unixfreak.org>
uid                            Dima Dorfman <dd@freebsd.org>
sub  1024g/A51DD1C0 2001-09-04 [expires: 2003-09-04]
sub  2048g/65AF3B89 2003-08-19 [expires: 2005-08-18]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.24. Udo Erdelhoff 

pub  1024R/E74FA871 1994-07-19 Udo Erdelhoff <uer@de.uu.net>
     Key fingerprint = 8C B1 80 CA 2C 52 73 81  FB A7 B4 03 C5 32 C8 67
uid                            Udo Erdelhoff <ue@nathan.ruhr.de>
uid                            Udo Erdelhoff <ue@freebsd.org>
uid                            Udo Erdelhoff <uerdelho@eu.uu.net>
uid                            Udo Erdelhoff <uerdelho@uu.net>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.25. Ruslan Ermilov 

pub  1024D/A8EE370A 2002-03-31 Ruslan Ermilov (FreeBSD) <ru@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = A3C4 291D 95A0 AF1F A85C  B029 524B F83F A8EE 370A
uid                            Ruslan Ermilov (FreeBSD Ukraine) <ru@FreeBSD.org.ua>
uid                            Ruslan Ermilov (IPNet) <ru@ip.net.ua>
sub  1024g/2E858CD8 2002-03-31 [expires: 2006-04-01]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.26. Chris D. Faulhaber 

pub  1024D/FE817A50 2000-12-20 Chris D. Faulhaber <jedgar@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = A47D A838 9216 F921 A456  54FF 39B6 86E0 FE81 7A50
uid                            Chris D. Faulhaber <jedgar@fxp.org>
sub  2048g/93452698 2000-12-20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.27. Brian F. Feldman 

pub  1024D/41C13DE3 2000-01-11 Brian Fundakowski Feldman <green@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 6A32 733A 1BF6 E07B 5B8D  AE14 CC9D DCA2 41C1 3DE3
sub  1024g/A98B9FCC 2000-01-11 [expires: 2001-01-10]

pub  1024D/773905D6 2000-09-02 Brian Fundakowski Feldman <green@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = FE23 7481 91EA 5E58 45EA  6A01 B552 B043 7739 05D6
sub  2048g/D2009B98 2000-09-02

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.28. Mário Sérgio Fujikawa Ferreira 

pub  1024D/A6381352 2003-06-01 Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira (Key For Official Matters) <lioux@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 9CB8 0712 2E58 8B14 7C00  B2FB F26B 6E64 A638 1352
uid                            Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira <lioux@brturbo.com>
uid                            Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira <lioux@uol.com.br>
sub  4096g/F28E9D8C 2003-06-01 [expires: 2006-05-31]
sub  1024g/40575E32 2003-06-01 [expires: 2004-05-31]
sub  1024D/4764FFBA 2003-06-01 [expires: 2004-05-31]

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D.3.29. Tony Finch 

pub  1024D/84C71B6E 2002-05-03 Tony Finch <dot@dotat.at>
     Key fingerprint = 199C F25B 2679 6D04 63C5  2159 FFC0 F14C 84C7 1B6E
uid                            Tony Finch <fanf@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Tony Finch <fanf@apache.org>
uid                            Tony Finch <fanf2@cam.ac.uk>
sub  2048g/FD101E8B 2002-05-03

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D.3.30. Marc Fonvieille 

pub  1024D/6C6481CA 2002-04-20 Marc Fonvieille <blackend@FreeBSD.org>
 Empreinte de la cl� = BA56 0F99 83D0 2601 F9F0  2ADA F354 F531 6C64 81CA
uid                            Marc Fonvieille <marc@blackend.org>
uid                            Marc Fonvieille <marc@freebsd-fr.org>
sub  1024g/D187C27A 2002-04-20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.7 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.31. Pete Fritchman 

pub  1024D/74B91CFD 2001-01-30 Pete Fritchman <petef@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 9A9F 8A13 DB0D 7777 8D8E  1CB2 C5C9 A08F 74B9 1CFD
uid                            Pete Fritchman <petef@databits.net>
uid                            Pete Fritchman <petef@csh.rit.edu>
sub  1024g/0C02AF0C 2001-01-30

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=ZbG1
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.32. Bill Fumerola 

pub  1024D/7F868268 2000-12-07 Bill Fumerola (FreeBSD Developer) <billf@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 5B2D 908E 4C2B F253 DAEB  FC01 8436 B70B 7F86 8268
uid                            Bill Fumerola (Security Yahoo) <fumerola@yahoo-inc.com>
sub  1024g/43980DA9 2000-12-07

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.33. Patrick S. Gardella 

pub  1024R/527BC62B 1997-06-23 Patrick Gardella <patrick@windministries.org>
     Key fingerprint = 54 7C D6 81 B1 63 D2 5E  BD DD 58 4D A4 0E E4 E1
uid                            Patrick Gardella <patrick@freebsd.org>
uid                            patrick@freebsd.org
uid                            Patrick Gardella <patrick@intothewind.cx>

pub  1024D/C6AF4835 2000-01-19 Patrick Gardella <patrick@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 4B2D 3CFA 963B E310 847E  7D6C C072 B447 C6AF 4835
uid                            Patrick Gardella <patrick@windministries.org>
uid                            Patrick Gardella <patrick@intothewind.cx>
sub  2048g/DB3B83E7 2000-01-19

pub  1024R/EE2D47A9 1996-08-17 Patrick Gardella <patrick@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = A6 DE 3C C0 33 CF 36 E6  D1 F5 BB E8 3C C4 67 50

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.34. Sebastien Gioria 

pub  1024D/7C8DA4F4 2002-02-09 Sebastien Gioria <eagle@freebsd-fr.org>
     Key fingerprint = 41F4 4885 7C23 6ED3 CC24  97AA 6DDD B426 7C8D A4F4
uid                            Sebastien Gioria <gioria@FreeBSD.ORG>
uid                            Sebastien Gioria <gioria@Francenet.fr>
uid                            Sebastien Gioria <gioria@fluxus.net>
sub  4096g/F147E4D3 2002-02-09

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.35. John-Mark Gurney 

pub  1024R/3F9951F5 1997-02-11 John-Mark Gurney <johnmark@gladstone.uoregon.edu>
     Key fingerprint = B7 EC EF F8 AE ED A7 31  96 7A 22 B3 D8 56 36 F4
uid                            John-Mark Gurney <gurney_j@efn.org>
uid                            John-Mark Gurney <jmg@cs.uoregon.edu>
uid                            John-Mark Gurney <gurney_j@resnet.uoregon.edu>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=bUtb
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.36. Daniel Harris 

pub  1024D/84D0D7E7 2001-01-15 Daniel Harris <dannyboy@worksforfood.com>
     Key fingerprint = 3C61 B8A1 3F09 D194 3259  7173 6C63 DA04 84D0 D7E7
uid                            Daniel Harris <dannyboy@freebsd.org>
uid                            Daniel Harris <dh@askdh.com>
uid                            Daniel Harris <dh@wordassault.com>
sub  1024g/9DF0231A 2001-01-15

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.7 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.37. John Hay 

pub  2048R/A9275B93 2000-05-10 John Hay <jhay@icomtek.csir.co.za>
     Key fingerprint = E7 95 F4 B9 D4 A7 49 6A  83 B9 77 49 28 9E 37 70
uid                            John Hay <jhay@mikom.csir.co.za>
uid                            Thawte Freemail Member <jhay@mikom.csir.co.za>
uid                            John Hay <jhay@csir.co.za>
uid                            John Hay <jhay@FreeBSD.ORG>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=l5Xu
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.38. Sheldon Hearn 

pub  1024D/74A06ACD 2002-06-20 Sheldon Hearn <sheldonh@starjuice.net>
     Key fingerprint = 01A3 EF91 9C5A 3633 4E01  8085 A462 57F1 74A0 6ACD
sub  1536g/C42F8AC8 2002-06-20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.39. Mike Heffner 

pub  1024D/CDECBF99 2001-02-02 Michael Heffner <mheffner@novacoxmail.com>
     Key fingerprint = AFAB CCEB 68C7 573F 5110  9285 1689 1942 CDEC BF99
uid                            Michael Heffner <mheffner@vt.edu>
uid                            Michael Heffner <mikeh@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Michael Heffner <spock@techfour.net>
uid                            Michael Heffner (ACM sysadmin) <mheffner@acm.vt.edu>
sub  1024g/3FE83FB5 2001-02-02

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.40. Guy Helmer 

pub  1024R/35F4ED2D 1997-01-26 Guy G. Helmer <ghelmer@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = A2 59 4B 92 02 5B 9E B1  B9 4E 2E 03 29 D5 DC 3A
uid                            Guy G. Helmer <ghelmer@cs.iastate.edu>
uid                            Guy G. Helmer <ghelmer@palisadesys.com>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.41. Maxime Henrion 

pub  1024D/881D4806 2003-01-09 Maxime Henrion <mux@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 81F1 BE2D 12F1 184A 77E4  ACD0 5563 7614 881D 4806
sub  2048g/D0B510C0 2003-01-09

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.1 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.42. Michael L. Hostbaek 

pub  1024D/0F55F6BE 2001-08-07 Michael L. Hostbaek <mich@freebsdcluster.org>
     Key fingerprint = 4D62 9396 B19F 38D3 5C99  1663 7B0A 5212 0F55 F6BE
uid                            Michael L. Hostbaek <mich@freebsdcluster.dk>
uid                            Michael L. Hostbaek <mich@icommerce-france.com>
uid                            Micahel L. Hostbaek <mich@freebsd.dk>
uid                            Michael L. Hostbaek <mich@the-lab.org>
uid                            Michael L. Hostbaek <mich@freebsd.org>
sub  1024g/8BE4E30F 2001-08-07

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.43. Howard F. Hu 

pub  1024D/4E9BCA59 2003-09-01 Foxfair Hu <foxfair@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 280C A846 CA1B CAC9 DDCF  F4CB D553 4BD5 4E9B CA59
sub  1024g/3356D8C1 2003-09-01 [expires: 2004-02-28]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.44. Jordan K. Hubbard 

pub  1024R/8E542D5D 1996-04-04 Jordan K. Hubbard <jkh@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 3C F2 27 7E 4A 6C 09 0A  4B C9 47 CD 4F 4D 0B 20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.45. Trevor Johnson 

pub  1024D/3A3EA137 2000-04-20 Trevor Johnson <trevor@jpj.net>
     Key fingerprint = 7ED1 5A92 76C1 FFCB E5E3  A998 F037 5A0B 3A3E A137
sub  1024g/46C24F1E 2000-04-20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.46. Poul-Henning Kamp 

pub  1024R/0358FCBD 1995-08-01 Poul-Henning Kamp <phk@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = A3 F3 88 28 2F 9B 99 A2  49 F4 E2 FA 5A 78 8B 3E

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.47. Josef Karthauser 

pub  1024D/E6B15016 2000-10-19 Josef Karthauser <joe@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 7266 8EAF 82C2 D439 5642  AC26 5D52 1C8C E6B1 5016
uid                            Josef Karthauser <joe@tao.org.uk>
uid                            Josef Karthauser <joe@uk.FreeBSD.org>
uid                            [revoked] Josef Karthauser <josef@bsdi.com>
uid                            [revoked] Josef Karthauser <joe@pavilion.net>
sub  2048g/1178B692 2000-10-19

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D.3.48. Kris Kennaway 

pub  1024D/68E840A5 2000-01-14 Kris Kennaway <kris@citusc.usc.edu>
     Key fingerprint = E65D 0E7D 7E16 B212 1BD6  39EE 5ABC B405 68E8 40A5
uid                            Kris Kennaway <kris@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Kris Kennaway <kris@obsecurity.org>
sub  2048g/03A41C45 2000-01-14 [expires: 2006-01-14]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.49. Giorgos Keramidas 

pub  1024D/318603B6 2001-09-21 Giorgos Keramidas <keramida@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = C1EB 0653 DB8B A557 3829  00F9 D60F 941A 3186 03B6
uid                            Giorgos Keramidas <charon@labs.gr>
uid                            Giorgos Keramidas <keramida@ceid.upatras.gr>
uid                            Giorgos Keramidas <keramida@hellug.gr>
uid                            Giorgos Keramidas <keramida@linux.gr>
sub  1024g/50FDBAD1 2001-09-21

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.1 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.50. Max Khon 

pub  1024D/414420F4 2003-04-29 Max Khon <fjoe@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = CE1F 29CA A6BF 2F26 13E8  1B61 62AE 6B8F 4144 20F4
uid                            Max Khon <fjoe@iclub.nsu.ru>
sub  1024g/6585039B 2003-04-29

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.51. Andreas Klemm 

pub  1024D/6C6F6CBA 2001-01-06 Andreas Klemm <andreas.klemm@eu.didata.com>
     Key fingerprint = F028 D51A 0D42 DD67 4109  19A3 777A 3E94 6C6F 6CBA
uid                            Andreas Klemm <andreas@klemm.gtn.com>
uid                            Andreas Klemm <andreas@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Andreas Klemm <andreas@apsfilter.org>
sub  2048g/FE23F866 2001-01-06

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.52. Sergei Kolobov 

pub  1024D/3BA53401 2003-10-10 Sergei Kolobov <sergei@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = A2F4 5F34 0586 CC9C 493A  347C 14EC 6E69 3BA5 3401
uid                            Sergei Kolobov <sergei@kolobov.com>
sub  2048g/F8243671 2003-10-10

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D.3.53. Maxim Konovalov 

pub  1024D/2C172083 2002-05-21 Maxim Konovalov <maxim@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 6550 6C02 EFC2 50F1 B7A3  D694 ECF0 E90B 2C17 2083
uid                            Maxim Konovalov <maxim@macomnet.ru>
sub  1024g/F305DDCA 2002-05-21

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D.3.54. Joseph Koshy 

pub  1024D/D93798B6 2001-12-21 Joseph Koshy (FreeBSD) <jkoshy@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 0DE3 62F3 EF24 939F 62AA  2E3D ABB8 6ED3 D937 98B6
sub  1024g/43FD68E9 2001-12-21

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
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D.3.55. Hideyuki KURASHINA 

pub  1024D/439ADC57 2002-03-22 Hideyuki KURASHINA <rushani@bl.mmtr.or.jp>
     Key fingerprint = A052 6F98 6146 6FE3 91E2  DA6B F2FA 2088 439A DC57
uid                            Hideyuki KURASHINA <rushani@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Hideyuki KURASHINA <rushani@jp.FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/64764D16 2002-03-22

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D.3.56. Alexander Langer 

pub  1024D/8E2523FD 2003-01-28 Alexander Langer <alex@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = B757 5ABF 691F 4011 F565  3765 BFBB 3506 8E25 23FD
sub  1024g/16C3B12D 2003-01-28

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D.3.57. Erwin Lansing 

pub  1024D/15256990 1998-07-03 Erwin Lansing <erwin@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = FB58 9797 299A F18E 2D3E  73D6 AB2F 5A5B 1525 6990
uid                            Erwin Lansing <erwin@lansing.dk>
uid                            Erwin Lansing <erwin@pil.dk>
uid                            Erwin Lansing <erwin@droso.dk>
uid                            Erwin Lansing <erwin@droso.org>
sub  2048g/7C64013D 1998-07-03

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D.3.58. Yen-Ming Lee 

pub  1024R/5EB52E51 1999-03-03 Yen-Ming Lee <leeym@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = FE 7E 04 56 FC D7 24 21  B9 3B 53 06 E8 93 B5 81
uid                            Yen-Ming Lee <leeym@civil.ncku.edu.tw>
uid                            Yen-Ming Lee <leeym@cae.ce.ntu.edu.tw>
uid                            Yen-Ming Lee <leeym@leeym.com>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
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D.3.59. Alexander Leidinger 

pub  1024D/B0063FE7 1999-11-11 Alexander Leidinger (Privat) <Alexander@Leidinger.net>
     Key fingerprint = C518 BC70 E67F 143F BE91  3365 79E2 9C60 B006 3FE7
sub  1024g/263CAC76 1999-11-11

pub  1024D/72077137 2002-01-31 Alexander Leidinger <netchild@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = AA3A 8F69 B214 6BBD 5E73  C9A0 C604 3C56 7207 7137
sub  2048g/8C9828D3 2002-01-31

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=OE8v
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.60. Ying-Chieh Liao 

pub  1024D/11C02382 2001-01-09 Ying-Chieh Liao <ijliao@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw>
     Key fingerprint = 4E98 55CC 2866 7A90 EFD7  9DA5 ACC6 0165 11C0 2382
uid                            Ying-Chieh Liao <ijliao@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Ying-Chieh Liao <ijliao@csie.nctu.edu.tw>
uid                            Ying-Chieh Liao <ijliao@dragon2.net>
uid                            Ying-Chieh Liao <ijliao@tw.FreeBSD.org>
sub  4096g/C1E16E89 2001-01-09

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=NLH6
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.61. Clive Lin 

pub  1024D/A008C03E 2001-07-30 Clive Lin <clive@tongi.org>
     Key fingerprint = FA3F 20B6 A77A 6CEC 1856  09B0 7455 2805 A008 C03E
uid                            Clive Lin <clive@CirX.ORG>
uid                            Clive Lin <clive@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/03C2DC87 2001-07-30  [expires: 2004-09-08]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: 5.0
Comment: PGP Key Server 0.9.4+patch2

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=vmJY
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.62. Tilman Linneweh 

pub  1024D/807AC53A 2002-06-03 Tilman Linneweh <arved@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = A92F 344F 31A8 B8DE DDFA  7FB4 7C22 C39F 807A C53A
uid                            Tilman Linneweh <tilman@arved.de>
uid                            Tilman Linneweh <e0025974@student.tuwien.ac.at>
uid                            Tilman Linneweh <linneweh@zid.tuwien.ac.at>
uid                            Tilman Linneweh <arved@arved.de>
sub  1024g/FA351986 2002-06-03 [expires: 2004-06-02]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.0 (FreeBSD)

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////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.63. Scott Long 

pub  1024D/017C5EBF 2003-01-18 Scott A. Long (This is my official FreeBSD key) <scottl@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 34EA BD06 44F7 F8C3 22BC  B52C 1D3A F6D1 017C 5EBF
sub  1024g/F61C8F91 2003-01-18

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.1 (FreeBSD)

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=C3Jv
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.64. Pav Lucistnik 

pub  1024D/C14EB282 2003-08-25 Pav Lucistnik <pav@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 2622 B7E3 7DA5 5C53 2079  855B 9ED7 583F C14E B282
uid                            Pav Lucistnik <pav@oook.cz>
sub  1024g/7287A947 2003-08-25

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.65. Bruce A. Mah 

pub  1024D/5BA052C3 1997-12-08 Bruce A. Mah <bmah@acm.org>
     Key fingerprint = F829 B805 207D 14C7 7197  7832 D8CA 3171 5BA0 52C3
uid                            Bruce A. Mah <bmah@ca.sandia.gov>
uid                            Bruce A. Mah <bmah@ieee.org>
uid                            Bruce A. Mah <bmah@cisco.com>
uid                            Bruce A. Mah <bmah@employees.org>
uid                            Bruce A. Mah <bmah@freebsd.org>
uid                            Bruce A. Mah <bmah@packetdesign.com>
sub  2048g/B4E60EA1 1997-12-08

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.66. Mike Makonnen 

pub  1024D/7CD41F55 2004-02-06 Michael Telahun Makonnen <mtm@FreeBSD.Org>
     Key fingerprint = AC7B 5672 2D11 F4D0 EBF8  5279 5359 2B82 7CD4 1F55
uid                            Michael Telahun Makonnen <mtm@tmsa-inc.com>
uid                            Mike Makonnen <mtm@identd.net>
uid                            Michael Telahun Makonnen <mtm@acs-et.com>
sub  2048g/E7DC936B 2004-02-06

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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=TuyI
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.67. David Malone 

pub   512/40378991 1994/04/21 David Malone <dwmalone@maths.tcd.ie>
            Key fingerprint = 86 A7 F4 86 39 2C 47 2C  C1 C2 35 78 8E 2F B8 F5

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: 2.6.3ia

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.68. Makoto Matsushita 

pub  1024D/20544576 1999-04-18 Makoto Matsushita <matusita@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 71B6 13BF B262 2DD8 2B7C  6CD0 EB2D 4147 2054 4576
uid                            Makoto Matsushita <matusita@matatabi.or.jp>
uid                            Makoto Matsushita <matusita@jp.FreeBSD.ORG>
uid                            Makoto Matsushita <matusita@ics.es.osaka-u.ac.jp>
sub  1024g/F1F3C94D 1999-04-18

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.69. Kenneth D. Merry 

pub  1024D/54C745B5 2000-05-15 Kenneth D. Merry <ken@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = D25E EBC5 F17A 9E52 84B4  BF14 9248 F0DA 54C7 45B5
uid                            Kenneth D. Merry <ken@kdm.org>
sub  2048g/89D0F797 2000-05-15

pub  1024R/2FA0A505 1995-10-30 Kenneth D. Merry <ken@plutotech.com>
     Key fingerprint = FD FA 85 85 95 C4 8E E8  98 1A CA 18 56 F0 00 1F

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.70. Dirk Meyer 

pub  1024R/331CDA5D 1995-06-04 Dirk Meyer <dinoex@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 44 16 EC 0A D3 3A 4F 28  8A 8A 47 93 F1 CF 2F 12
uid                            Dirk Meyer <dirk.meyer@dinoex.sub.org>
uid                            Dirk Meyer <dirk.meyer@guug.de>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.71. Yoshiro Sanpei MIHIRA 

pub  1024R/391C5D69 1996-11-21 sanpei@SEAPLE.ICC.NE.JP
     Key fingerprint = EC 04 30 24 B0 6C 1E 63  5F 5D 25 59 3E 83 64 51
uid                            MIHIRA Yoshiro <sanpei@sanpei.org>
uid                            Yoshiro MIHIRA <sanpei@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            MIHIRA Yoshiro <sanpei@yy.cs.keio.ac.jp>
uid                            MIHIRA Yoshiro <sanpei@cc.keio.ac.jp>
uid                            MIHIRA Yoshiro <sanpei@educ.cc.keio.ac.jp>
uid                            MIHIRA Yoshiro <sanpei@st.keio.ac.jp>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.72. Jim Mock 

pub  1024D/3AA4FEE0 2002-01-10 Jim Mock <jim@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = AEEC 998D 7828 D306 AFF7  06CA D8FE 7285 3AA4 FEE0
uid                            Jim Mock <mij@soupnazi.org>
sub  1024g/3780652B 2002-01-10

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.73. Marcel Moolenaar 

pub  1024D/61EE89F6 2002-02-09 Marcel Moolenaar <marcel@xcllnt.net>
     Key fingerprint = 68BB E2B7 49AA FF69 CA3A  DF71 A605 A52D 61EE 89F6
sub  1024g/6EAAB456 2002-02-09

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.74. Thomas Möstl 

pub  1024D/419C776C 2000-11-28 Thomas Moestl <tmm@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 1C97 A604 2BD0 E492 51D0  9C0F 1FE6 4F1D 419C 776C
uid                            Thomas Moestl <tmoestl@gmx.net>
uid                            Thomas Moestl <t.moestl@tu-bs.de>
sub  2048g/ECE63CE6 2000-11-28

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.75. Rich Murphey 

pub  1024R/583443A9 1995-03-31 Rich Murphey <rich@lamprey.utmb.edu>
     Key fingerprint = AF A0 60 C4 84 D6 0C 73  D1 EF C0 E9 9D 21 DB E4

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.76. Akinori MUSHA 

pub  1024D/9FD9E1EE 2000-03-21 Akinori MUSHA <knu@and.or.jp>
     Key fingerprint = 081D 099C 1705 861D 4B70  B04A 920B EFC7 9FD9 E1EE
uid                            Akinori MUSHA <knu@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Akinori MUSHA <knu@idaemons.org>
uid                            Akinori MUSHA <knu@ruby-lang.org>
sub  1024g/71BA9D45 2000-03-21

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.77. Masafumi NAKANE 

pub  1024D/CE356B59 2000-02-19 Masafumi NAKANE <max@wide.ad.jp>
     Key fingerprint = EB40 BCAB 4CE5 0764 9942  378C 9596 159E CE35 6B59
uid                            Masafumi NAKANE <max@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Masafumi NAKANE <max@accessibility.org>
uid                            Masafumi NAKANE <kd5pdi@qsl.net>
sub  1024g/FA9BD48B 2000-02-19

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.2 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.78. Yoichi NAKAYAMA 

pub  1024D/E0788E46 2000-12-28 Yoichi NAKAYAMA <yoichi@assist.media.nagoya-u.ac.jp>
     Key fingerprint = 1550 2662 46B3 096C 0460  BC03 800D 0C8A E078 8E46
uid                            Yoichi NAKAYAMA <yoichi@eken.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp>
uid                            Yoichi NAKAYAMA <yoichi@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/B987A394 2000-12-28

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (GNU/Linux)
Comment: KUHASIKU WA http://www.gnupg.org/ WO GORANKUDASAI

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.79. Alexander Nedotsukov 

pub  1024D/D004116C 2003-08-14 Alexander Nedotsukov <bland@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 35E2 5020 55FC 2071 4ADD  1A4A 86B6 8A5D D004 116C
sub  1024g/1CCA8D46 2003-08-14

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.80. Simon L. Nielsen 

pub  1024D/27359A51 2003-07-22 Simon L. Nielsen <simon@nitro.dk>
     Key fingerprint = 912B F341 7E90 2049 05B4  3800 87DA 5C0D 2735 9A51
uid                            Simon L. Nielsen <simon@FreeBSD.org>
sub  2048g/C11D9097 2003-07-22 [expires: 2006-07-21]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.81. Anders Nordby 

pub  1024D/00835956 2000-08-13 Anders Nordby <anders@fix.no>
     Key fingerprint = 1E0F C53C D8DF 6A8F EAAD  19C5 D12A BC9F 0083 5956
uid                            Anders Nordby <anders@FreeBSD.org>
sub  2048g/4B160901 2000-08-13

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.82. David O'Brien 

pub  1024R/34F9F9D5 1995-04-23 David E. O'Brien <defunct - obrien@Sea.Legent.com>
     Key fingerprint = B7 4D 3E E9 11 39 5F A3  90 76 5D 69 58 D9 98 7A
uid                            David E. O'Brien <obrien@NUXI.com>
uid                            deobrien@ucdavis.edu
uid                            David E. O'Brien <whois Do38>
uid                            David E. O'Brien <obrien@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            David E. O'Brien <dobrien@seas.gwu.edu>
uid                            David E. O'Brien <obrien@cs.ucdavis.edu>
uid                            David E. O'Brien <defunct - obrien@media.sra.com>
uid                            David E. O'Brien <obrien@elsewhere.roanoke.va.us>
uid                            David E. O'Brien <obrien@Nuxi.com>

pub  1024D/7F9A9BA2 1998-06-10 "David E. O'Brien" <obrien@cs.ucdavis.edu>
     Key fingerprint = 02FD 495F D03C 9AF2 5DB7  F496 6FC8 DABD 7F9A 9BA2
uid                            "David E. O'Brien" <obrien@NUXI.com>
uid                            "David E. O'Brien" <obrien@FreeBSD.org>
sub  3072g/BA32C20D 1998-06-10

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.83. Mark Peek 

pub  1024D/330D4D01 2002-01-27 Mark Peek <mp@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 510C 96EE B4FB 1B0A 2CF8  A0AF 74B0 0B0E 330D 4D01
sub  1024g/9C6CAC09 2002-01-27

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.84. Peter Pentchev 

pub  1024D/16194553 2002-02-01 Peter Pentchev <roam@ringlet.net>
     Key fingerprint = FDBA FD79 C26F 3C51 C95E  DF9E ED18 B68D 1619 4553
uid                            Peter Pentchev <roam@sbnd.net>
uid                            Peter Pentchev <roam@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Peter Pentchev <roam@online.bg>
uid                            Peter Pentchev <roam@orbitel.bg>
uid                            Peter Pentchev <roam@techlab.office1.bg>
sub  1024g/7074473C 2002-02-01

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.85. Denis Peplin 

pub  1024D/485DDDF5 2003-09-11 Denis Peplin <den@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 495D 158C 8EC9 C2C1 80F5  EA96 6F72 7C1C 485D DDF5
sub  1024g/E70BA158 2003-09-11

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.86. Jim Pirzyk 

pub  1024D/4E23DACA 2001-03-02 Jim Pirzyk <pirzyk@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 07EE A1BD 32E5 C402 59B6  22D5 D846 31D1 4E23 DACA
uid                            Jim Pirzyk <Jim.Pirzyk@disney.com>
sub  1024g/F38895F7 2001-03-02

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.87. John Polstra 

pub  1024R/BFBCF449 1997-02-14 John D. Polstra <jdp@polstra.com>
     Key fingerprint = 54 3A 90 59 6B A4 9D 61  BF 1D 03 09 35 8D F6 0D

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.88. Kirill Ponomarew 

pub  1024D/AEB426E5 2002-04-07 Kirill Ponomarew <ponomarew@oberon.net>
     Key fingerprint = 58E7 B953 57A2 D9DD 4960  2A2D 402D 46E9 AEB4 26E5
uid                            Kirill Ponomarew <krion@netic.de>
uid                            Kirill Ponomarew <krion@guug.de>
uid                            Kirill Ponomarew <krion@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/0CEE1A9B 2002-04-07

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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D.3.89. Mark Pulford 

pub  1024D/182C368F 2000-05-10 Mark Pulford <markp@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 58C9 C9BF C758 D8D4 7022  8EF5 559F 7F7B 182C 368F
uid                            Mark Pulford <mark@kyne.com.au>
sub  2048g/380573E8 2000-05-10

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.90. Thomas Quinot 

pub  1024D/393D2469 1999-09-23 Thomas Quinot <thomas@cuivre.fr.eu.org>
 Empreinte de la cl� = 4737 A0AD E596 6D30 4356  29B8 004D 54B8 393D 2469
uid                            Thomas Quinot <thomas@debian.org>
uid                            Thomas Quinot <thomas@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/8DE13BB2 1999-09-23

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
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D.3.91. Doug Rabson 

pub  1024R/95C11771 2000-02-27 Doug Rabson <dfr@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 20 BB E4 38 5D 89 D2 D4  68 A6 2F DC 0A DE 10 3C

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.92. Tom Rhodes 

pub  1024D/1B9EBD43 2002-01-15 Tom Rhodes <trhodes@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 2D4D 1D31 A5C6 08AA 1075  C963 C0F9 A089 1B9E BD43
uid                            Tom Rhodes <darklogik@pittgoth.com>
sub  3072g/F7A606E4 2002-01-15

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D.3.93. Benno Rice 

pub  1024D/87C59909 2002-01-16 Benno Rice <benno@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = CE27 DADA 08E3 FAA3 88F1  5B31 5E34 705A 87C5 9909
uid                            Benno Rice <benno@jeamland.net>
sub  1024g/4F7C2BAD 2002-01-16 [expires: 2007-01-15]

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.94. Paul Richards 

pub  2048R/BD42E037 2000-02-21 Paul Richards <paul@originative.co.uk>
     Key fingerprint = 38 4F 33 80 53 92 01 46  ED 4B A4 91 3E 1E 6B FE
uid                            Dr David Paul Richards <paul@originative.com>
uid                            Paul Richards <paul@originative.com>
uid                            Paul Richards <paul@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Paul Richards <paul@apache.org>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.95. Ollivier Robert 

pub  1024D/7DCAE9D3 1997-08-21 Ollivier Robert <roberto@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 2945 61E7 D4E5 1D32 C100  DBEC A04F FB1B 7DCA E9D3
uid                            Ollivier Robert <roberto@keltia.freenix.fr>
uid                            Ollivier Robert <roberto@keltia.net>
uid                            Ollivier Robert <roberto@eurocontrol.fr>
sub  2048g/C267084D 1997-08-21

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.96. Guido van Rooij 

pub  1024R/599F323D 1996-05-18 Guido van Rooij <guido@gvr.org>
     Key fingerprint = 16 79 09 F3 C0 E4 28 A7  32 62 FA F6 60 31 C0 ED
uid                            Guido van Rooij <guido@gvr.win.tue.nl>

pub  1024D/A95102C1 2000-10-25 Guido van Rooij <guido@madison-gurkha.nl>
     Key fingerprint = 5B3E 51B7 0E7A D170 0574  1E51 2471 117F A951 02C1
uid                            Guido van Rooij <guido@madison-gurkha.com>
sub  1024g/A5F20553 2000-10-25

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.97. Hiroki Sato 

pub  1024D/2793CF2D 2001-06-12 Hiroki Sato <hrs@allbsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = BDB3 443F A5DD B3D0 A530  FFD7 4F2C D3D8 2793 CF2D
uid                            Hiroki Sato <hrs@eos.ocn.ne.jp>
uid                            Hiroki Sato <hrs@ring.gr.jp>
uid                            Hiroki Sato <hrs@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Hiroki Sato <hrs@jp.FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Hiroki Sato <hrs@vlsi.ee.noda.tus.ac.jp>
uid                            Hiroki Sato <hrs@jp.NetBSD.org>
uid                            Hiroki Sato <hrs@NetBSD.org>
sub  1024g/8CD251FF 2001-06-12

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.98. Wolfram Schneider 

Type Bits/KeyID    Date       User ID
pub  1024/2B7181AD 1997/08/09 Wolfram Schneider <wosch@FreeBSD.org>
            Key fingerprint = CA 16 91 D9 75 33 F1 07  1B F0 B4 9F 3E 95 B6 09

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: 2.6.3ia

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.99. David Schultz 

pub  1024D/BE848B57 2001-07-19 David Schultz <das@FreeBSD.ORG>
     Key fingerprint = 0C12 797B A9CB 19D9 FDAF  2A39 2D76 A2DB BE84 8B57
uid  David Schultz <dschultz@uclink.Berkeley.EDU>
uid  David Schultz <das@FreeBSD.ORG>
sub  2048g/69206E8E 2001-07-19

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.100. Jens Schweikhardt 

pub  1024D/0FF231FD 2002-01-27 Jens Schweikhardt <schweikh@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 3F35 E705 F02F 35A1 A23E  330E 16FE EA33 0FF2 31FD
uid                            Jens Schweikhardt <schweikh@schweikhardt.net>
sub  1024g/6E93CACC 2002-01-27 [expires: 2005-01-26]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.101. Gregory Neil Shapiro 

pub  1024R/4FBE2ADD 2000-10-13 Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@gshapiro.net>
     Key fingerprint = 56 D5 FF A7 A6 54 A6 B5  59 10 00 B9 5F 5F 20 09
uid                            Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@FreeBSD.org>

pub  1024D/F76A9BF5 2001-11-14 Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 3B5E DAF1 4B04 97BA EE20  F841 21F9 C5BC F76A 9BF5
uid                            Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@gshapiro.net>
sub  2048g/935657DC 2001-11-14

pub  1024D/FCE56561 2000-10-14 Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 42C4 A87A FD85 C34F E77F  5EA1 88E1 7B1D FCE5 6561
uid                            Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@gshapiro.net>
sub  1024g/285DC8A0 2000-10-14 [expires: 2001-10-14]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.102. Arun Sharma 

pub  1024D/7D112181 2003-03-06 Arun Sharma <arun@sharma-home.net>
     Key fingerprint = A074 41D6 8537 C7D5 070E  0F78 0247 1AE2 7D11 2181
uid                            Arun Sharma <arun@freebsd.org>
uid                            Arun Sharma <arun.sharma@intel.com>
sub  1024g/ACAD98DA 2003-03-06 [expires: 2005-03-05]

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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=klyl
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.103. Vanilla I. Shu 

pub  1024D/ACE75853 2001-11-20 Vanilla I. Shu <vanilla@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 290F 9DB8 42A3 6257 5D9A  5585 B25A 909E ACE7 5853
sub  1024g/CE695D0E 2001-11-20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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=aR5H
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.104. Christopher Shumway 

pub  1024D/3219F982 2001-05-17 Christopher Shumway <cshumway@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 45F5 931B 0646 BF84 E78E  E274 6C29 340E 3219 F982
uid                            Christopher Shumway <cshumway@titan-project.org>
sub  1024g/D215EFED 2001-05-17

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.105. Dmitry Sivachenko 

pub  1024D/13D5DF80 2002-03-18 Dmitry Sivachenko <mitya@cavia.pp.ru>
     Key fingerprint = 72A9 12C9 BB02 46D4 4B13  E5FE 1194 9963 13D5 DF80
uid                            Dmitry S. Sivachenko <demon@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/060F6DBD 2002-03-18

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.106. Jesper Skriver 

pub  1024D/F9561C31 2001-03-09 Jesper Skriver <jesper@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 6B88 9CE8 66E9 E631 C9C5  5EB4 22AB F0EC F956 1C31
uid                            Jesper Skriver <jesper@skriver.dk>
uid                            Jesper Skriver <jesper@wheel.dk>
sub  1024g/777C378C 2001-03-09

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.107. Ville Skyttä 

pub  1024D/BCD241CB 2002-04-07 Ville Skytt� <ville.skytta@iki.fi>
     Key fingerprint = 4E0D EBAB 3106 F1FA 3FA9  B875 D98C D635 BCD2 41CB
uid                            Ville Skytt� <ville.skytta@xemacs.org>
uid                            Ville Skytt� <scop@FreeBSD.org>
sub  2048g/9426F4D1 2002-04-07

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.7 (GNU/Linux)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.108. Ben Smithurst 

pub  1024D/2CEF442C 2001-07-11 Ben Smithurst <ben@LSRfm.com>
     Key fingerprint = 355D 0FFF B83A 90A9 D648  E409 6CFC C9FB 2CEF 442C
uid                            Ben Smithurst <ben@vinosystems.com>
uid                            Ben Smithurst <ben@smithurst.org>
uid                            Ben Smithurst <ben@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Ben Smithurst <csxbcs@comp.leeds.ac.uk>
uid                            Ben Smithurst <ben@scientia.demon.co.uk>
sub  1024g/347071FF 2001-07-11

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.109. Dag-Erling C. Smørgrav 

pub  1024D/8B71D3A4 2003-07-01 Dag-Erling Sm鴕grav <des@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = FDD3 5997 92A0 007F 9905  511C EB80 DE1D 8B71 D3A4
uid                            Dag-Erling Sm鴕grav <des@des.no>
uid                            Dag-Erling Sm鴕grav <des@ofug.org>
uid                            Dag-Erling Sm鴕grav <des@ifi.uio.no>
sub  1024g/CC6B8628 2003-07-01 [expires: 2004-06-30]

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D.3.110. Maxim Sobolev 

pub  1024D/888205AF 2001-11-21 Maxim Sobolev <sobomax@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 85C9 DCB0 6828 087C C977  3034 A0DB B9B7 8882 05AF
uid                            Maxim Sobolev <sobomax@mail.ru>
uid                            Maxim Sobolev <sobomax@altavista.net>
uid                            Maxim Sobolev <vegacap@i.com.ua>

pub  1024D/468EE6D8 2003-03-21 Maxim Sobolev <sobomax@portaone.com>
     Key fingerprint = 711B D315 3360 A58F 9A0E  89DB 6D40 2558 468E E6D8
uid                            Maxim Sobolev <sobomax@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Maxim Sobolev <sobomax@mail.ru>
uid                            Maxim Sobolev <vegacap@i.com.ua>

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.111. Daniel C. Sobral 

pub  1024R/488A2DD5 2000-06-07 Daniel C. Sobral <dcs@newsguy.com>
     Key fingerprint = AF 90 A6 A2 B5 8D 6C 28  37 F3 F4 47 8B 31 47 DF
uid                            Daniel C. Sobral <dcs@freebsd.org>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.112. Brian Somers 

pub  1024R/666A7421 1997-04-30 Brian Somers <brian@freebsd-services.com>
     Key fingerprint = 2D 91 BD C2 94 2C 46 8F  8F 09 C4 FC AD 12 3B 21
uid                            Brian Somers <brian@awfulhak.org>
uid                            Brian Somers <brian@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Brian Somers <brian@OpenBSD.org>
uid                            Brian Somers <brian@uk.FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Brian Somers <brian@uk.OpenBSD.org>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.113. Nicolas Souchu 

pub  1024D/C744F18B 2002-02-13 Nicholas Souchu <nsouch@freebsd.org>
     Key fingerprint = 992A 144F AC0F 40BA 55AE  DE6D 752D 0A6C C744 F18B
sub  1024g/90BD3231 2002-02-13

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: Pour information voir http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.114. Gregory Sutter 

pub  1024D/845DFEDD 2000-10-10 Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@zer0.org>
     Key fingerprint = D161 E4EA 4BFA 2427 F3F9  5B1F 2015 31D5 845D FEDD
uid                            Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@freebsd.org>
uid                            Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@daemonnews.org>
uid                            Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@pobox.com>
sub  2048g/0A37BBCE 2000-10-10

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

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D.3.115. Yoshihiro Takahashi 

pub  1024D/8394B81F 2001-10-15 Yoshihiro TAKAHASHI <nyan@jp.FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = D4FA D8CA 2AED FCF4 90A3  3569 8666 0500 8394 B81F
uid                            Yoshihiro TAKAHASHI <nyan@furiru.org>
uid                            Yoshihiro TAKAHASHI <nyan@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/B796F020 2001-10-15

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.116. Mikhail Teterin 

pub  1024R/3FC71479 1995-09-08 Mikhail Teterin <mi@aldan.star89.galstar.com>
     Key fingerprint = 5F 15 EA 78 A5 40 6A 0F  14 D7 D9 EA 6E 2B DA A4

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.117. Gordon Tetlow 

pub  1024D/357D65FB 2002-05-14 Gordon Tetlow <gordont@gnf.org>
     Key fingerprint = 34EF AD12 10AF 560E C3AE  CE55 46ED ADF4 357D 65FB
uid                            Gordon Tetlow <gordon@FreeBSD.org>
sub  1024g/243694AB 2002-05-14

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.7 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.118. Jacques Vidrine 

pub  2048R/33C1627B 2001-07-05 Jacques A. Vidrine <nectar@celabo.org>
     Key fingerprint = CB CE 7D A0 6E 01 DC 61  E5 91 0A BE 79 17 D3 82
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <jvidrine@verio.net>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <n@nectar.com>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <jacques@vidrine.cc>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <nectar@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <n@nectar.cc>

pub  1024D/1606DB95 2001-07-05 Jacques A. Vidrine <nectar@celabo.org>
     Key fingerprint = 46BC EA5B F70A CC81 5332  0832 8C32 8CFF 1606 DB95
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <jvidrine@verio.net>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <n@nectar.com>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <jacques@vidrine.cc>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <nectar@FreeBSD.org>
uid                            Jacques A. Vidrine <n@nectar.cc>
sub  2048g/57EDEA6F 2001-07-05

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
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D.3.119. Adam Weinberger 

pub  1024D/42C743FD 2002-10-12 Adam Weinberger <adam@vectors.cx>
     Key fingerprint = A980 3F2E 80A8 9619 9D1C  82E8 A3C2 8CD9 42C7 43FD
sub  1024g/15D67628 2002-10-12

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.0 (FreeBSD)

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.120. Nate Williams 

pub  1024D/C2AC6BA4 2002-01-28 Nate Williams (FreeBSD) <nate@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 8EE8 5E72 8A94 51FA EA68  E001 FFF9 8AA9 C2AC 6BA4
sub  1024g/03EE46D2 2002-01-28

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

D.3.121. Garrett Wollman 

pub  1024D/0B92FAEA 2000-01-20 Garrett Wollman <wollman@FreeBSD.org>
     Key fingerprint = 4627 19AF 4649 31BF DE2E  3C66 3ECF 741B 0B92 FAEA
sub  1024g/90D5EBC2 2000-01-20

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.122. Jörg Wunsch 

pub  1024R/76A3F7B1 1996-04-27 Joerg Wunsch <joerg_wunsch@interface-business.de>
     Key fingerprint = DC 47 E6 E4 FF A6 E9 8F  93 21 E0 7D F9 12 D6 4E
uid                            Joerg Wunsch <j@interface-business.de>
uid                            Joerg Wunsch <joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de>
uid                            Joerg Wunsch <j@uriah.heep.sax.de>

-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org

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D.3.123. Alexey Zelkin 

pub  1024D/9196B7D9 2002-01-28 Alexey Zelkin <phantom@FreeBSD.org>
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Colophon

This book is the combined work of hundreds of contributors to ``The FreeBSD Documentation Project''. The text is authored in SGML according to the DocBook DTD and is formatted from SGML into many different presentation formats using Jade, an open source DSSSL engine. Norm Walsh's DSSSL stylesheets were used with an additional customization layer to provide the presentation instructions for Jade. The printed version of this document would not be possible without Donald Knuth's TeX typesetting language, Leslie Lamport's LaTeX, or Sebastian Rahtz's JadeTeX macro package.

Notes

[1]

This is what i386 means. Note that even if you are not running FreeBSD on an Intel 386 CPU, this is going to be i386. It is not the type of your processor, but the processor ``architecture'' that is shown here.
[2]

Startup scripts are programs that are run automatically by FreeBSD when booting. Their main function is to set things up for everything else to run, and start any services that you have configured to run in the background doing useful things.
[3]

A fairly technical and accurate description of all the details of the FreeBSD console and keyboard drivers can be found in the manual pages of syscons(4), atkbd(4), vidcontrol(1) and kbdcontrol(1). We will not expand on the details here, but the interested reader can always consult the manual pages for a more detailed and thorough explanation of how things work.
[4]

Not quite true--there are a few things that can not be interrupted. For example, if the process is trying to read from a file that is on another computer on the network, and the other computer has gone away for some reason (been turned off, or the network has a fault), then the process is said to be ``uninterruptible''. Eventually the process will time out, typically after two minutes. As soon as this time out occurs the process will be killed.
[5]

Well, 除非你连接多个终端设备,这种情况我们在Chapter 17讨论.
[6]

选项-sadduser(8) 是. 当我们想要改变缺省设置可以使用-v选项
[7]

自动赋值算法是设置maxusers等于系统的内存总量，最小到32，最大到384。
[8]

Under FreeBSD the standard login password may be up to 128 characters in length.
[9]

For tips on how to select a secure passphrase that is easy to remember, see the Diceware Passphrase website.
[10]

RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks and offers various forms of fault tolerance, though the latter term is somewhat misleading: it provides no redundancy.
[11]

有个非常流行的带有很棒XFree86性能的图形卡---nVidia, 也不得不向XFree86团队公布他们对XVideo支持的规范书。不久的将来，XFree86就可以在这些卡上完全支持XVideo。
[12]

在有些国家，播放没授权的DVD是犯法的。请在使用这个选项的时候检查当地的法律。
[13]

这个并不十分正确。我们不能继续永远地支持老的FreeBSD发行版。完整的老版本FreeBSD当前的安全问题描述，请查看http://www.FreeBSD.org/security/.